The extreme thermal loads encountered in fourth-generation synchrotron radiation sources and X-ray free-electron lasers (XFEL) impose stringent requirements on X-ray optical components. Conventional materials such as beryllium and silicon increasingly exhibit limitations under high-energy conditions, including insufficient thermal conductivity, limited radiation stability, and significant absorption losses, rendering them inadequate for next-generation high-energy X-ray optics. In this context, single-crystal diamond, with its high thermal conductivity, low absorption coefficient, and excellent mechanical strength and radiation resistance, has emerged as a promising candidate for high-energy X-ray refractive optics. This review systematically summarizes recent advances in the fabrication and performance optimization of diamond X-ray refractive lenses for high-energy applications. Starting from the evolving demands of modern synchrotron radiation facilities and XFEL, the fundamental requirements for materials and structural design in high-energy X-ray optics are analyzed. Through comparisons with representative materials, the advantages of diamond in thermal management and transmission performance are highlighted. Major micro- and nanofabrication techniques, including femtosecond laser processing, focused ion beam milling, and plasma etching, are comprehensively reviewed, with emphasis on their respective characteristics in terms of processing efficiency, precision control, and damage introduction. The emerging trend of hybrid fabrication strategies is also discussed. Furthermore, the effects of surface roughness, subsurface damage, and crystal defects on wavefront quality and focusing performance are examined, along with corresponding post-processing and surface correction methods. Finally, current challenges related to large-size single-crystal growth, high-precision low-damage fabrication, and long-term operational stability are discussed, and future development directions for diamond-based X-ray refractive optical components are outlined.

Successive femtosecond laser pulses interact with titanium surfaces modified by earlier irradiation. We combined time-resolved pump–probe imaging with molecular dynamics assisted by a two-temperature model (TTM–MD) to examine the resulting optical and structural changes. At 19.4 and 31 mW, delayed reflectivity oscillations weakened after the first irradiation, although surface restructuring continued. At 45 mW, spatial rings appeared at selected delays without a clear periodic component in the central reflectivity trace. Simulations at absorbed fluences of 2000 and 3000 J m⁻² produced internal low-density bands with maximum first-pulse thicknesses of 37 and 59 nm, respectively. The corresponding second-pulse bands reached only 3 and 9 nm in a cooled residual target prepared from the first-pulse calculation. Polyhedral template matching revealed substantial loss of hexagonal close-packed local order in the sampled surface region. These results support a qualitative interpretation linking prior irradiation, structural modification and altered optical response. Changes in interface geometry and material optical properties provide possible contributions to the pulse-dependent signal.