Objective: Achillea millefolium ( A. millefolium ) is a traditional herbal medicine that contains natural compounds with antioxidant activities and is used for a wide range of conditions among people. The aim of our study was to investigate antioxidant and anti-acetylcholinesterase activities of A. millefolium extracts to determine its potential therapeutic usage in Alzheimer’s disease (AD). Methods: Methanol extracts (ME) and ethanol extracts (EE) of A. millefolium were prepared to determine (a) in vitro antioxidant activities, (b) the effects on acetylcholinesterase kinetics (by using a colorimetric spectroscopic method) and (c) the effects on sodium nitroprusside (SNP)-induced lipid peroxidation in mice brain homogenate. Results: ME had higher antioxidant activities compared to EE. Both extracts displayed a competitive inhibition of acetylcholinesterase; however, the inhibitory activity of ME was higher than EE. The inhibitory constant (K _i ) values of ME and EE were found to be 28.43 and 68.47 μg/mL, respectively. Both extracts caused a significant concentration-dependent decrease in malondialdehyde (MDA) contents in mice brain homogenate, indicating a strong inhibition of lipid peroxidation. Conclusions: Our results showed that A. millefolium has a high antioxidant capacity and anti-acetylcholinesterase activity due to its phenolic compounds, suggesting a potential use as adjuvant therapy in neurodegenerative conditions such as AD.

The scope of this study was to investigate the total phenolic, anthocyanin, and flavonoid contents and the biological properties of ethanol extract (EE), methanol extract (ME), and aqueous extract (AE) from Vaccinium arctostaphylos L. EE, ME, and AE of V. arctostaphylos were prepared. Various biological activities such as total phenolic, anthocyanin, and flavonoid contents, and antioxidant (2,2'-diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl ferrous ion-chelating, and ferric reducing antioxidant power assays), α-glucosidase inhibitory, anti-inflammatory, and DNA protective properties of these extracts were studied. EE exhibited the highest total phenolic, anthocyanin, and flavonoid contents with 44.42±1.22 mg gallic acid equivalents/g dry weight, 8.46±0.49 mg/Cyaniding-3-glucoside equivalents/g dry weight, and 9.22±0.92 mg quercetin equivalents/g dry weight, respectively. The antioxidant activities of the extracts followed the order: EE>ME>AE. EE and ME inhibited α-glucosidase enzyme and their IC50 values were 0.301±0.002 mg/mL and 0.477±0.003 mg/mL, respectively. In addition, EE and ME were determined as noncompetitive inhibitors with inhibitory constant (Ki ) values of 0.48±0.02 mg/mL and 0.46±0.01 mg/mL, respectively. EE in 100 and 300 mg/kg doses caused a significant reduction in formalin-induced edema in mice, demonstrating the anti-inflammatory effect of EE. In DNA protective studies, all of the extracts protected supercoiled plasmid pBR322 DNA against damage caused by Fenton's reagents due to their radical scavenging activities. Our results demonstrated that EE of V. arctostaphylos L. had strong antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, α-glucosidase inhibitory, and DNA protective effects, suggesting that it might be an effective medical plant to prevent or treat diseases associated with oxidative damage and inflammation.

Cylophosphamide (CP)‐induced acute cystitis is a debilitating bladder dysfunction commonly observed in cancer patients, primarily resulting from oxidative damage and inflammation in the bladder tissue. Dimethyl fumarate (DMF) is a fumaric acid ester approved for the treatment of multiple sclerosis due to its antioxidant and anti‐inflammatory properties. Thus, we aimed to investigate the multiple effects of DMF, involving both its potential synergistic effect with CP on the SH‐SY5Y cells and its uroprotective effect on CP‐induced acute cystitis. Female Balb/c mice were orally administrated DMF (100 or 300 mg/kg/day) for five consecutive days before a single intraperitoneal (i.p) dose of CP. Mesna was administered 20 min before and at 4 h, 8 h after CP application. Following 24 h of CP injection, bladders were removed for functional, biochemical analysis and evaluation of vesical vascular permeability. SH‐SY5Y cell viability was assayed by MTT test. CP markedly decreased carbachol‐induced contraction of detrusor strips (p < 0.01), which was prevented by the high‐dose DMF treatment (p < 0.05). Evans blue dye extravasation was greatly increased in the bladders of cystitis group (p < 0.001), which was significantly decreased in DMF‐treated mice with cystitis (p < 0.01). Total GSH content was decreased (p < 0.01) whereas TNF‐α level was increased (p < 0.05) in the bladders of cystitis group. High‐dose DMF‐treated mice showed an increment in total GSH content (p < 0.05) without any alterations on TNF‐α levels of the bladders with cystitis. Additionally, combination of different concentrations of CP and DMF exhibited a potent synergistic cytotoxic effect in SH‐SY5Y cells. DMF improved CP‐induced acute cystitis by partially suppressing oxidative stress and inflammation, while also enhancing the cytotoxic effects of CP.