Background: Wild orchids are illegally harvested and traded in Nepal for use in local traditional medicine, horticulture, and international trade. This study aims to: 1) identify the diversity of species of wild orchids in trade in Nepal; 2) study the chain of commercialization from collector to client and/or export; 3) map traditional knowledge and medicinal use of orchids; and 4) integrate the collected data to propose a more sustainable approach to orchid conservation in Nepal. Methods: Trade, species diversity, and traditional use of wild-harvested orchids were documented during field surveys of markets and through interviews. Trade volumes and approximate income were estimated based on surveys and current market prices. Orchid material samples were identified to species level using a combination of morphology and DNA barcoding. Results: Orchid trade is a long tradition, and illegal export to China, India and Hong Kong is rife. Estimates show that 9.4 tons of wild orchids were illegally traded from the study sites during 2008/2009. A total of 60 species of wild orchids were reported to be used in traditional medicinal practices to cure at least 38 different ailments, including energizers, aphrodisiacs and treatments of burnt skin, fractured or dislocated bones, headaches, fever and wounds. DNA barcoding successfully identified orchid material to species level that remained sterile after culturing. Conclusions: Collection of wild orchids was found to be widespread in Nepal, but illegal trade is threatening many species in the wild. Establishment of small-scale sustainable orchid breeding enterprises could be a valuable alternative for the production of medicinal orchids for local communities. Critically endangered species should be placed on CITES Appendix I to provide extra protection to those species. DNA barcoding is an effective method for species identification and monitoring of illegal cross-border trade.

Rauvolfia serpentinais a cosmopolitan in tropical habitats with more concentration in the tropics of Africa, Asia and America. Higher diversity has been recorded from the Indian Sub-continent region, especially around the gangetic plain areas. In Nepal, its distribution stretches from East to West up to an altitude of 900 m asl. Genetic resources are currently facing tremendous threats due to increased anthropogenic activities such as deforestation, habitat alteration and unsustainable harvesting for trade. A forest gene bank concept in which large range of gene sources is purposely put together is adapted to conserve genetic resources of the Rauvolfia serpentinaplant. To enrich our knowledge regarding the natural habitat of the species, literature review, visit to the herbarium centre and field visits were preformed. All accumulated data was subjected to DIVA GIS to plot a predictive map of the plant habitat based on climate and altitude. The map depicts western Terai to be a safe zone for this species. Sinks and source area for the gene conservation concept revealed Bishnupur (Bardiya District) and Vajni (Kailali District) sites to be the sink areas, while other 34 sites as the source areas.