Carbon nano-onions (CNOs) were successfully synthesized by employing the flame pyrolysis (FP) method, using flaxseed oil as a carbon source. The alcohol reduction method was used to prepare Pd/CNOs and Pd-Sn/CNOs electro-catalysts, with ethylene glycol as the solvent and reduction agent. The metal-nanoparticles were supported on the CNO surface without adjusting the pH of the solution. High-resolution transmission electron microscopy (HRTEM) images reveal CNOs with concentric graphite ring morphology, and also PdSn nanoparticles supported on the CNOs. X-ray diffractometry (XRD) patterns confirm that CNOs are amorphous and show the characteristic diffraction peaks of Pd. There is a shifting of Pd diffraction peaks to lower angles upon the addition of Sn compared to Pd/CNOs. X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS) results also confirm the doping of Pd with Sn to form a PdSn alloy. Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR) displays oxygen, hydroxyl, carboxyl, and carbonyl, which facilitates the dispersion of Pd and Sn nanoparticles. Raman spectrum displays two prominent peaks of carbonaceous materials which correspond to the D and G bands. The Pd-Sn/CNOs electro-catalyst demonstrates improved electro-oxidation of methanol and ethanol performance compared to Pd/CNOs and commercial Pd/C electro-catalysts under alkaline conditions.

In direct alcohol fuel cells (DAFCs), energy conversion co‐occurs at the anode (alcohol oxidation reaction [AOR]) and cathode (oxygen reduction reaction [ORR]). The sluggishness of AOR and ORR needs highly electrocatalytically active and stable electrocatalysts that boost electrokinetics, which is central in electrocatalysts’ architectural design and modulation. This design entails enhanced engineering synthesis protocols, heteroatomic doping, metallic doping/alloying, and deliberate introduction of defective motifs within the electrocatalyst matrix. The electrocatalyst activity and behavior depend on the electrocatalysts’ nature, type, composition, and reaction media, acidic or alkaline. Alkaline media permits cheap nonplatinum group metals. This review elucidates the roles and electrocatalytic pathways on different AOR and ORR electrocatalysts and outlines the aspects distinguishing ORR in alkaline and acidic media. It gives up‐to‐date and ultramodern strategies, protocols, and underlying mechanisms pointing to the efficacy and efficiency of electrocatalysts. The focus centers on heteroatomic, metallic dopants, defects effects correlated to electrocatalytic properties and experimental and theoretical findings. For the advancement in the field, the present study discusses critical parameters for improving the performances of electrocatalysts for DAFCs and breakthroughs on the horizon. Conclusively, knowledge gaps and prospects of these materials for industrial viability and reigning futuristic research directions are presented.

Mn-doped spinel oxides Mn_xNi_1−xCo₂O₄ (x = 0, 0.3, 0.5, 0.7, and 1) were synthesized using the citric acid-assisted sol–gel method. The Mn_0.5Ni_0.5Co₂O₄ (x = 0.5) supported on carbon nanosheets, Mn_0.5Ni_0.5Co₂O₄/C, was also prepared using the same method employing NaCl and glucose as a template and carbon source, respectively, followed by pyrolysis under an inert atmosphere. The electrocatalytic oxygen reduction reaction (ORR) activity was performed in alkaline media. Cyclic voltammetry (CV) was used to investigate the oxygen reduction performance of Mn_xNi_1−xCo₂O₄ (x = 0, 0.3, 0.5, 0.7, and 1), and Mn_0.5Ni_0.5Co₂O₄ was found to be the best-performing electrocatalyst. Upon supporting the Mn_0.5Ni_0.5Co₂O₄ on a carbon sheet, the electrocatalytic activity was significantly enhanced owing to its large surface area and the improved charge transfer brought about by the carbon support. Rotating disk electrode studies show that the ORR electrocatalytic activity of Mn_0.5Ni_0.5Co₂O₄/C proceeds via a four-electron pathway. Mn_0.5Ni_0.5Co₂O₄/C was found to possess E_1/2(V) = 0.856, a current density of 5.54 mA cm⁻², and a current loss of approximately 0.11% after 405 voltammetric scan cycles. This study suggests that the interesting electrocatalytic performance of multimetallic transition metal oxides can be further enhanced by supporting them on conductive carbon materials, which improve charge transfer and provide a more active surface area.

Palladium-based catalysts serve as promising electrocatalysts for the oxidation of ethylene glycol to produce electrical energy that can be used to address the continuous worldwide energy demand increments along with the depletion of fossil fuels which serve as the main energy source. For optimal catalysts performance, carbon nanotubes and carbon nanodots were investigated as palladium catalyst support materials to address difficulties in oxidizing and breaking the C–C bonds in ethylene glycol, cost of electrocatalyst, and complex reaction mechanism that is restraining rapid development and applications of direct ethylene glycol fuel cells (DEGFC). Utilization of palladium catalysts supported on carbon nanotubes (CNT) and carbon nanodots (CND) as support materials resulted in spontaneous ethylene glycol oxidation. The Pd/CNT catalyst showed greater stability compared to Pd/CND during the oxidation of ethylene glycol, and it is not easily poisoned by carbon monoxide intermediates formed during ethylene glycol oxidation as shown by a slow current decay on chronoamperometry.

Carbon nanofibers (CNFs) supported by Pd and Pd-Sn electro-catalysts were prepared by the chemical reduction method using ethylene glycol as the reducing agent. Their physicochemical characteristics were studied using high resolution-transmission electron microscopy (HR-TEM), Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR), X-ray diffraction (XRD), X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS), thermogravimetric analysis (TGA) and Bruanaer-Emmett-Teller (BET) analysis. FTIR revealed that oxygen, hydroxyl, carboxylic and carbonyl functional groups facilitated the dispersion of Pd and Sn nanoparticles. The doping of Pd with Sn to generate PdSn alloy was also confirmed by XPS data. The amorphous nature of CNFs was confirmed by XRD patterns which exhibited the Pd diffraction peaks. When Sn was added to Pd/CNFs, the diffraction peaks moved to lower angles. HRTEM images revealed that the CNFs with cylindrical shape-like morphology and also Pd-Sn nanoparticles dispersed on carbon support. The catalytic activity and stability towards alcohol electro-oxidation in alkaline medium at room temperature was evaluated using cyclic voltammetry (CV), chronoamperometry (CA) and electrochemical impedance spectroscopy (EIS). The obtained Pd-Sn/CNFs electro-catalyst exhibited a better electro-catalytic activity than Pd/CNFs and Pd/C electro-catalysts for both methanol and ethanol oxidation. The improvement of the electrochemical performance was associated with the synergistic effect via the addition of Sn which modified the Pd atom arrangement, thereby promoting oxidation through a dehydrogenation pathway. Furthermore, SnO₂ generates abundant OH species which helps with increasing the rate of the oxidative removal of carbon monoxide (CO) intermediates from Pd sites.