It is known that extracellular vesicles (EVs) are shed from cells of almost every type of cell or organism, showing their ubiquity in all empires of life. EVs are defined as naturally released particles from cells, delimited by a lipid bilayer, and cannot replicate. These nano- to micrometer scaled spheres shuttle a set of bioactive molecules. EVs are of great interest as vehicles for drug targeting and in fundamental biological research, but in vitro culture of animal cells usually achieves only small yields. The exploration of other biological kingdoms promises comprehensive knowledge on EVs broadening the opportunities for basic understanding and therapeutic use. Thus, plants might be sustainable biofactories producing nontoxic and highly specific nanovectors, whereas bacterial and fungal EVs are promising vaccines for the prevention of infectious diseases. Importantly, EVs from different eukaryotic and prokaryotic kingdoms are involved in many processes including host-pathogen interactions, spreading of resistances, and plant diseases. More extensive knowledge of inter-species and interkingdom regulation could provide advantages for preventing and treating pests and pathogens. In this review, we present a comprehensive overview of EVs derived from eukaryota and prokaryota and we discuss how better understanding of their intercommunication role provides opportunities for both fundamental and applied biology.

Diabetes mellitus is a metabolic disorder characterized by chronic hyperglycaemia. There are many and diverse therapeutic strategies in the management of Type 2 diabetes. The inhibition of alpha-amylase activity is only one possibility to lower postprandial blood glucose levels. In our in-vitro studies we could demonstrate that different plants, mostly traditionally used in common diabetic therapy in Africa or Europe, are able to inhibit alpha-amylase, which is responsible for the breakdown of oligosaccharides into monosaccharides which are absorbed. An inhibition of alpha-amylase activity of 90% was seen with the extract of the leaves of Tamarindus indica. To quantify inhibtion rates, acarbose was used (IC50: 23.2 µM). Highest inhibition level of acarbose in our testmodel was about 85%. Additionally tests with pure polyphenolic compounds might explain the biological activity of the selected plants. Diabetes mellitus é uma desordem metabólica caracterizada pela hiperglicemia crônica. Existem diversas estratégias terapêuticas no tratamento da diabetes Tipo 2. A inibição da atividade da a-amilase é apenas uma possibilidade de reduzir os níveis de glicose posprandiais. Nos nossos estudos in vitro pudemos demonstrar que diferentes plantas, especialmente as tradicionalmente usadas em terapia comum de diabetes na África ou Europa, são capazes de inibir a a-amilase, a qual é responsável pela quebra dos oligossacarídeos em monossacarídeos, os quais são absorvidos. Uma inibição da atividade da a-amilase da ordem de 90% foi observada com o extrato das folhas de Tamarindus indica. Para quantificar os graus de inibição, acarbose foi usada (IC50: 23,2 mM). O maior grau de inibição de acarbose no nosso modelo de teste foi de cerca de 85%. Adicionalmente testes com compostos polifenólicos puros poderão explicar a atividade biológica das plantas selecionadas

Ribosome-inactivating proteins (RIPs) are toxins that act as N-glycosidases (EC 3.2.2.22). They are mainly produced by plants and classified as type 1 RIPs and type 2 RIPs. There are also RIPs and RIP related proteins that cannot be grouped into the classical type 1 and type 2 RIPs because of their different sizes, structures or functions. In addition, there is still not a uniform nomenclature or classification existing for RIPs. In this review, we give the current status of all known plant RIPs and we make a suggestion about how to unify those RIPs and RIP related proteins that cannot be classified as type 1 or type 2 RIPs.

Although animal-derived extracellular vesicles (EVs) are moving increasingly into scientific focus, EVs from other kingdoms remain underestimated and our knowledge of them is still expandable, probably due to the lack of an easy and broadly executable isolation, purification and visualization method. Using differential centrifugation with subsequent agarose gel electrophoresis, we were able to simplify the terms of EV isolation. EVs from Nicotiana tabacum L., Vinca minor L., and Viscum album L. were purified, even though they did not migrate into the gel matrix. If 3,3- Dihexyloxacarbocyanine iodide (DiOC ${}_6$ ) is added to the specimen in excess, membranous components can already be detected by eye, or with higher sensitivity, using a UV transilluminator. The sample preparation can be adjusted to the EV species of interest. Moreover, EVs are separated from small charged contaminants and dye excess, because these impurities can pass the gel matrix, while EVs themselves are retained in the pocket. Significantly, we isolated EVs from dried plant material, which is—to our knowledge—the first proof that EVs are stable enough to overcome the drying process of plant material.