Groundwater is a precious freshwater resource heavily relied upon by agricultural activities in many parts of the world, and especially by countries with limited water resources located in arid regions. Groundwater resources are under severe pressures due to population increase, urbanisation and socio-economic development, with potential for causing long-term threats to human life and natural ecosystems. This study attempts to investigate the impacts of local and regional climatic trends, and establish key forcing functions that have changed local groundwater resources. The main questions answered through this study include: Are these changes beneficial or detrimental? If they are detrimental, what is the future outlook for impacts on the ecosystem? What are the corrective actions needed to avert the long-term risks in arid environments? In view of this, the methodology developed in this study focuses on a joint time-series statistical analysis using ground data as well as Gravity Recovery and Climate Experiment (GRACE) satellite data. Results show a substantial depletion in the groundwater thickness (0.24 ± 0.20 cm/year) during the period of observation (2002–2020). Long-term temperature data indicates that the annual mean temperature increased significantly by 1.02 °C between 1987 and 2016, while total rainfall exhibited a slight decreasing trend. In addition to groundwater extraction, fluctuations in monthly rainfall, soil moisture, evapotranspiration and relative humidity support the groundwater thickness reduction of GRACE datasets. The use of desalinated water and wastewater reuse in the agriculture sector may reduce the pressure on groundwater resources. Optimization, adaptation and mitigation in the EWF nexus will further improve the sustainability of the EWF resources.

Utilizing aquifers as groundwater storage reservoirs is an effective strategy for water management in water scare regions. The success of managed aquifer recharge (MAR) relies on the assessment and modeling of site-specific hydrogeological characteristics, including groundwater salinity, transmissivity, storativity, slope, soil properties, proximity to water recharge networks and road accessibility, etc. This study employs a GIS-based multi-criteria evaluation technique, integrating both ground and remote sensing datasets. The results indicate that a significant portion of the total land area, approximately 7,414.11 km² (64%), can potentially be utilized for MAR practices, while the remaining 36% is restricted due to various constraints, such as built-up areas, roads, agricultural lands and nationally protected areas for conservation. The available 64% of land is further categorized into subclasses ranging from highly suitable to least suitable areas. Most of the highly and moderately suitable regions are located in the northern central parts of the country where seasonal surplus treated wastewater and desalinated water may be used to recharge groundwater. Furthermore, MAR technology can also be used to tackle saltwater intrusion in the coastal areas by injecting seasonal surplus desalinated and treated wastewater. These findings suggest that MAR technology has a high potential to facilitate aquifer water storage and recovery in the country, which can contribute to sustainable water resources.