Previous studies show an association between traditional and cyber victimization. However, there seem to be differences in how these forms of being bullied relates to emotional problems in the victims. Few studies focus on symptoms of general anxiety and depression as separate variables when comparing traditional and cyber victimization. Self-assessment was used from a sample of 3,046 Norwegian adolescents: 1,583 boys and 1,463 girls, ages 15 to 16 years. Significantly higher prevalence of traditional victimization than cyber victimization for both genders was found. The prevalence of being a victim of either type of victimization was significantly higher for boys than girls. Structural equation models showed significant differences between traditional victimization and cyber victimization and their relation to emotional problems. There was a stronger association between traditional victimization and depressive symptoms than between cyber victimization and depressive symptoms. Results also showed a stronger association between cyber victimization and symptoms of anxiety than between traditional victimization and symptoms of anxiety.

A growing body of research shows a correlation between an authoritative school climate and lower levels of bullying. One objective of this study is to conceptualize authoritative intervention in bullying cases. A second goal is to explore whether, and how, the pupils, having experienced traditional and/or cyber victimization, perceive that the class teacher is demonstrating authoritative leadership when intervening in long-lasting cases of bullying. Class teacher refers to the teacher that has a special responsibility for the class. The article presents the findings from nine semi-structured interviews with four Irish and five Norwegian pupils. The informants were between 12 to 18 years of age and had experienced either traditional victimization or both traditional and cyber victimization for 1 to 7 years. The informants were selected because their cases had been reported as resolved. The findings showed no descriptions of the class teacher that appeared to fit with the authoritative style of leadership, both high on warmth and control. The possible practical implications of these findings are discussed.

Background: The lives of children in school is rapidly changing and their off-line and on-line lives are becoming more and more interwoven, this is also making the field of bullying more complex. Although bullying is a field that has been studied for quite some time, new technology is creating new challenges. There is still a need to know more about the possible emotional problems traditional and cyber victimization has on the students experiencing it. Knowing how it affects them is however not enough as it is also important to know what the teacher could do to make the situation better for these students when the bullying has happened. On this background, the current thesis attempts to highlight the different emotional problems detected between students having experienced traditional and / or cyber victimization, and to explore these consequences in depth, in addition to shed some light on how the class teachers’ response is perceived when the bullying has happened. Aims: The primary aim of this thesis was to contribute to the knowledge and theory building regarding the emotional consequences of traditional and cyber victimization and the importance of the authoritative class teacher in the intervention of bullying cases. A sub aim was related to practical implications and covers helping teachers in their practical work better recognize different emotional symptoms in addition to making them aware of the importance of the authoritative class teacher and protective control when intervening in cases of bullying. Methods: Paper 1 builds on data from questionnaires from the nationwide school environment study conducted by Center for behavioral research in Norway in 2008. The data were collected using self - reported questionnaires, 3046 students participated in the study. For analysis SPSS software was initially used. Further latent variables in Structural Equation Modeling (Mplus) was used for investigating the relation between victimization and emotional problems. Paper 2 and 3 builds on qualitative data from 10 semi structured individual interviews performed both in Norway and Ireland. All the respondents had experienced traditional victimization and many of them also cyber victimization. The sample consisted of 10 cases that were reported closed to either the Norwegian centre for learning environment and behavioral research in education (NSLA), University of Stavanger or the National anti-bullying research and resource centre, Dublin City University. Results: The results in paper 1 showed a stronger association between cyber victimization and symptoms of anxiety than between traditional victimization and symptoms of anxiety. There were also a stronger association between traditional victimization and symptoms of depression than between cyber victimization and symptoms of depression. The results in paper 2 showed differences regarding descriptions of symptoms of post-traumatic stress for those respondents having experienced only traditional and those having experienced both traditional and cyber victimization. The respondents having experienced both traditional and cyber victimization where the only ones reporting trouble sleeping, experiences of fear outside school and behavioral avoidance also outside school. The findings in paper 3 showed that none of the class teachers were perceived as authoritative by the respondents, i.e. high on both warmth and control, during the time the respondents were bullied. Conclusion: Both the findings in paper 1 and 2 points in the direction of cyber victimization causing more symptoms of anxiety than traditional victimization. The reasons for these results are yet to be investigated in future studies, however as cyber victimization often includes the aspects of anonymity and publicity, these could be contributing to the victim reporting more anxiety when having experienced cyber victimization. To reduce the experienced anxiety it is suggested that the teacher in bullying intervention needs to demonstrate an authoritative teacher style, which is found in paper 3 to be absent. In addition to emphasize the importance of showing warmth and control, the theoretical concept of protective control is introduced.

This study examines how principals’ expectations, teachers’ attitudes, and knowledge of special education influence inclusive teaching practices and the integration of minority students with special needs in Norwegian classrooms. Using surveys and classroom observations, findings reveal that teacher attitudes, self-efficacy, and training significantly predict the adoption of inclusive practices, aligning with Allport’s Intergroup Contact Theory and the Theory of Planned Behavior. Key strategies include differentiated instruction, culturally relevant pedagogy, and family involvement, fostering equity and engagement. While principals’ expectations shape school culture, their direct impact on teachers’ practices is limited. The study highlights the need for enhanced professional development and adaptive teaching to address resource and material gaps, ensuring equitable access to education. Limitations include a cross-sectional design and small sample size, which restrict causality and generalizability. Results underscore the importance of systematic, inclusive practices for meaningful integration.

This chapter focuses on how the authoritative theory can be applied in the work against bullying. The authoritative adult is characterized as being both responsive and demanding, and the combination of these two dimensions. Extensive research shows how the presence of an authoritative adult is positive for several factors regarding children’s developments such as self-reliance, prosocial behavior, achievement motivation, academic achievement, self-control, and social confidence. In addition, research also finds a correlation between an authoritative role in schools and lower levels of bullying. An important question that will be discussed further is how a complex theory such as the authoritative perspective can be implemented with quality in the “real-world” setting.