Fruit flies (Diptera: Tephritidae) are among the most economically important pest species in the world, attacking a wide range of fruits and fleshy vegetables throughout tropical and sub-tropical areas. These species are such devastating crop pests that major control and eradication programs have been developed in various parts of the world to combat them. The array of control methods includes insecticide sprays to foliage and soil, bait-sprays, male annihilation techniques, releases of sterilized flies and parasitoids, and cultural controls. During the twenty first century there has been a trend to move away from control with organophosphate insecticides (e.g., malathion, diazinon, and naled) and towards reduced risk insecticide treatments. In this article we present an overview of 73 pest species in the genus Bactrocera, examine recent developments of reduced risk technologies for their control and explore Integrated Pest Management (IPM) Programs that integrate multiple components to manage these pests in tropical and sub-tropical areas.

The objectives of this study were to quantify the virulence of four entomopathogenic fungal species to pupae of Rhagoletis pomonella (Walsh) (Diptera: Tephritidae) and to determine the potential to combine entomopathogenic fungi (EPFs) and entomopathogenic nematodes (EPNs) for biological control of this pest. The four species of EPFs included Beauveria bassiana (strain GHA), Metarhizium brunneum (strain F52), Isaria javanica (wf GA17), and Isaria fumosorosea (Apopka 97 strain). In laboratory assays, all fungi reduced adult emergence but there were no differences between fungal species. Isaria javanica and M. brunneum were examined further in a EPFs and EPNs bioassay that also included the EPNs Steinernema carpocapsae (ALL strain) and S. riobrave (355 strain). All nematodes and fungi were applied either alone or in combination (fungus + nematode). There were no differences between species within the same entomopathogen group (fungi and nematodes). However, the treatment with S. riobrave resulted in lower R. pomonella emergence than either fungal species. The combination of S. riobrave and I. javanica resulted in the lowest R. pomonella emergence (3%) at fourth-week interval, which was significantly lower than any of the single-agent applications, yet virulence of the other three combination treatments was not different from their respective nematode treatments applied alone. Additive interactions were detected for all fungus–nematode combinations. This study suggests that application of entomopathogenic nematodes and fungi could be an effective option to suppress R. pomonella populations.

Ammonia-releasing substances are known to play an important role in fruit fly (Diptera: Tephritidae) attraction to food sources, and this information has been exploited for the development of effective synthetic food-based lures and insecticidal baits. In field studies conducted in Hawaii, we examined the behavioural response of wild female oriental fruit fly (Bactrocera dorsalis(Hendel)), melon fly (B. cucurbitae(Coquillett)), and Mediterranean fruit fly (Ceratitis capitata(Wiedemann)) to spinosad-based GF-120 NF Naturalyte Fruit Fly Bait^©formulated to contain either 0, 1 or 2% ammonium acetate. Use of visually-attractive yellow bait stations for bait application in the field allowed for proper comparisons among bait formulations. Field cage tests were also conducted to investigate, using a comparative behavioural approach, the effects of female age and protein starvation on the subsequent response of F₁generationB. cucurbitaeandB. dorsalisto the same three bait formulations that were evaluated in the field. Our field results indicate a significant positive effect of the presence, regardless of amount, of AA in GF-120 forB. dorsalisandB. cucurbitae. ForC. capitata, there was a significant positive linear relationship between the relative amounts of AA in bait and female response. GF-120 with no AA was significantly more attractive to femaleC. capitata, but not to femaleB. dorsalisorB. cucurbitae,than the control treatment. Our field cage results indicate that the effects of varying amounts of AA present in GF-120 can be modulated by the physiological stage of the female flies and that the response of femaleB. cucurbitaeto GF-120 was consistently greater than that ofB. dorsalisover the various ages and levels of protein starvation regimes evaluated. Results are discussed in light of their applications for effective fruit fly suppression.

Anastrepha fraterculus (Wiedemann) is recognized as a pest of citrus, apples, and blackberries in South America. In Mexico, it is mainly found in fruit of the family Myrtaceae and has never been reported infesting citrus. Here, we sought to determine whether females stemming from Mexican A. fraterculus populations (collected in the state of Veracruz) would lay eggs in ‘Valencia’ oranges and ‘Ruby Red’ grapefruit and, if so, whether larvae would hatch and develop. We worked under laboratory and seminatural conditions (i.e., gravid females released in fruit-bearing, bagged branches in a commercial citrus grove) and used Anastrepha ludens (Loew), a notorious pest of citrus, as a control species. Under laboratory conditions, A. ludens readily accepted both oranges and grapefruit as oviposition substrates, but A. fraterculus rarely oviposited in these fruit (but did so in guavas, a preferred host) and no larvae ever developed. Eggs were deposited in the toxic flavedo (A. fraterculus) and nontoxic albedo (A. ludens) regions. Field studies revealed that, as was the case in the laboratory, A. fraterculus rarely oviposited into oranges or grapefruit and that, when such was the case, either no larvae developed (oranges) or of the few (13) that developed and pupated (grapefruit), only two adults emerged that survived 1 and 3 d, respectively (5–17% of the time necessary to reach sexual maturity). In sharp contrast, grapefruit exposed to A. ludens yielded up to 937 pupae and adults survived for >6 mo. Therefore, the inability of Mexican A. fraterculus to successfully develop in citrus renders the status of Mexican A. fraterculus as a pest of citrus in Mexico as unsubstantiated.