Gut-liver-brain axis is a three-way highway of information interaction system among the gastrointestinal tract, liver, and nervous systems. In the past few decades, breakthrough progress has been made in the gut liver brain axis, mainly through understanding its formation mechanism and increasing treatment strategies. In this review, we discuss various complex networks including barrier permeability, gut hormones, gut microbial metabolites, vagus nerve, neurotransmitters, immunity, brain toxic metabolites, β-amyloid (Aβ) metabolism, and epigenetic regulation in the gut-liver-brain axis. Some therapies containing antibiotics, probiotics, prebiotics, synbiotics, fecal microbiota transplantation (FMT), polyphenols, low FODMAP diet and nanotechnology application regulate the gut liver brain axis. Besides, some special treatments targeting gut-liver axis include farnesoid X receptor (FXR) agonists, takeda G protein-coupled receptor 5 (TGR5) agonists, glucagon-like peptide-1 (GLP-1) receptor antagonists and fibroblast growth factor 19 (FGF19) analogs. Targeting gut-brain axis embraces cognitive behavioral therapy (CBT), antidepressants and tryptophan metabolism-related therapies. Targeting liver-brain axis contains epigenetic regulation and Aβ metabolism-related therapies. In the future, a better understanding of gut-liver-brain axis interactions will promote the development of novel preventative strategies and the discovery of precise therapeutic targets in multiple diseases.

In recent years, mass spectrometry-based proteomics has provided scientists with the tremendous capability to study plants more precisely than previously possible. Currently, proteomics has been transformed from an isolated field into a comprehensive tool for biological research that can be used to explain biological functions. Several studies have successfully used the power of proteomics as a discovery tool to uncover plant resistance mechanisms. There is growing evidence that indicates that the spatial proteome and post-translational modifications (PTMs) of proteins directly participate in the plant immune response. Therefore, understanding the subcellular localization and PTMs of proteins is crucial for a comprehensive understanding of plant responses to biotic stress. In this review, we discuss current approaches to plant proteomics that use mass spectrometry, with particular emphasis on the application of spatial proteomics and PTMs. The purpose of this paper is to investigate the current status of the field, discuss recent research challenges, and encourage the application of proteomics techniques to further research.