Distribution, exposure pathways, sources and toxicity of nonylphenol and nonylphenol ethoxylates in the environment

The presence of phthalate esters (PAEs) in the environment is not desirable and therefore, needs to be monitored. This study reports the first data on the concentration levels of PAEs in water and sediments of the Jukskei River catchment area, South Africa. The study was conducted during the summer and winter seasons of 2005. Liquid-liquid extraction (LLE) and Soxhlet extraction (SE) methods were optimized, evaluated and used to determine PAEs of interest in water (unfiltered and filtered) and sediments samples, respectively. Mean percentage recoveries in spiked doubly distilled water ranged from 100 ± 5.32 dimethyl phthalate (DMP) – 122 ± 0.46 di-2-ethylhexyl phthalate (DEHP) and 91.6 ± 1.93 diethyl phthalate (DEP) – 117 ± 4.80 dibutyl phthalate (DBP) in sediments. The concentration levels of PAEs studied in unfiltered environmental water samples were in the range of 0.04(± 0.00) (DMP) − 9.76(± 00.1) ng mL⁻¹(DEHP) for PAEs and from 0.09 (± 0.01) (DMP) – 4.38 (± 0.06) ng mL⁻¹(DEHP) for filtered environmental water samples. Concentration levels obtained in sediments were from 0.05 (0.00) (DMP) – 4910 (0.36) ng/gdw (DEHP). PAEs adsorbed on the sample bottle gave concentration levels of up to 0.10 (± 0.03) ng mL⁻¹for some samples and no analyte was detected (ND) in some cases Generally, concentrations obtained were below the water quality guideline values of United States Environmental Protection Agency (USEPA).

Global water scarcity is becoming an increasingly critical issue; greywater reuse presents a promising solution to alleviate pressure on freshwater resources, particularly in arid and water-scarce regions. Greywater typically sourced from household activities such as laundry, bathing, and dishwashing, constitutes a significant portion of domestic wastewater. However, the reuse of greywater raises concerns about the potential risks posed by its complex composition. Despite the growing body of literature on greywater reuse, most studies only focus on specific contaminants, thus there is a limited understanding of the comprehensive profile of contaminants, health, and environmental effects associated with these pollutants. This review adds new knowledge through a holistic exploration of the composition and physico-chemical characteristics of greywater, with a focus on its organic and inorganic pollutants, heavy metals, EDCs, emerging microplastics, nanoparticles, and microbial agents such as bacteria, fungi, viruses, and protozoa. This review sheds light on the current state of knowledge regarding greywater pollutants and their associated risks while highlighting the importance of safe reuse. Additionally, this review highlights the removal of contaminants from greywater and the sustainable use of grey water for addressing water scarcity in affected regions.