In this study, xanthan gum is used as a model exopolymer to demonstrate potential effects of non-Newtonian properties of natural aquatic systems on settling dynamics of particles. Rheological measurements combined with settling experiments using visualization methods revealed that instantaneous velocity fluctuations and a flow pattern formed around a particle are the effects of solution viscoelasticity and shear-thinning properties and that the average settling velocity depends on the exopolymer concentration and particle size. Our study showed that in the considered conditions a disk-shaped particle settles preferably in vertical position with a negative wake behind. The understanding of these processes is essential in technology and engineering and is necessary to improve prediction accuracy of large-scale sedimentation processes and biogeochemical cycles in the ocean involving settling of minerals, marine snow, microplastics, and locomotion of microorganisms.

Settling due to gravity force is a basic transport mechanism of solid particles in fluids in the Earth. A large portion of particles occurring in nature and used in technical applications are non-spherical. Settling of particles is usually studied in homogeneous ambient conditions, however, stratification is inherent of natural fluids. It has been acknowledged that stratification modifies the velocity of settling spheres and amorphous aggregates. However, the effect of particle shape on the dynamics of settling through density-stratified ambient fluid has not been recognized well enough. Here I show experimental evidence that continuous density transition markedly modifies the settling dynamics of a disk in terms of settling velocity and orientation of a particle. Settling dynamics of a disk are more complex than dynamics of spheres and aggregates studied previously. I found that in a two-layer ambient with density transition, a disk settling in a low Reynolds number regime undergoes five phases of settling with the orientation varying from horizontal to vertical, and it may achieve two local minimum settling velocities in the density transition layer. Moreover, I found that the settling dynamics depends on a density difference between upper and lower homogeneous layers, stratification strength and thickness of density transition.

Recent advances in understanding bedload transport under unsteady flow conditions are presented, with a particular emphasis on laboratory experiments. The contribution of laboratory studies to the explanation of key processes of sediment transport observed in alluvial rivers, ephemeral streams, and river reaches below a dam is demonstrated, primarily focusing on bedload transport in gravel-bed streams. The state of current knowledge on the impact of flow properties (unsteady flow hydrograph shape and duration, flood cycles) and sediment attributes (bed structure, sediment availability, bed composition) on bedload are discussed, along with unsteady flow dynamics of the water-sediment system. Experiments published in recent years are summarized, the main findings are presented, and future directions of research are suggested.

Settling of non-spherical particles in a stratified fluid exhibits complex dynamics in a low-to-moderate inertia regime. Although this process is involved in a wide variety of phenomena in natural fluid systems, its fundamental mechanisms are still unexplored. Understanding of particle settling in microscale is particularly important to explain challenging problems associated with ecological and biogeochemical processes in the ocean due to the delayed settling of particulate matter at pycnoclines. Here, I explore interactions between disk-shaped particles and a stratified fluid with a density transition. By laboratory experiments, I demonstrate that the settling dynamics of the disk crossing a density transition are tightly coupled with the wake structure evolution, and I observe for the first time in a two-layer ambient configuration a bell-shaped structure that forms on a jet after the wake has detached from the particle. Furthermore, I identify hydrodynamic conditions for the variations of settling velocity and particle orientation instabilities. These findings shed light on particle settling mechanisms necessary to explain dynamics of marine particles such as plankton, faecal pellets, and microplastics and may improve the estimation methods of sedimentation processes in various areas of earth sciences and engineering.

This paper presents an evaluation and analysis of resistance parameters: friction slope, friction velocity and Manning coefficient in unsteady flow. The methodology to enhance the evaluation of resistance by relations derived from flow equations is proposed. The main points of the methodology are (1) to choose a resistance relation with regard to a shape of a channel and (2) type of wave, (3) to choose an appropriate method to evaluate slope of water depth, and (4) to assess the uncertainty of result. In addition to a critical analysis of existing methods, new approaches are presented: formulae for resistance parameters for a trapezoidal channel, and a translation method instead of Jones' formula to evaluate the gradient of flow depth. Measurements obtained from artificial dam-break flood waves in a small lowland watercourse have made it possible to apply the method and to analyse to what extent resistance parameters vary in unsteady flow. The study demonstrates that results of friction slope and friction velocity are more sensitive to applying simplified formulae than the Manning coefficient (n). n is adequate as a flood routing parameter but may be misleading when information on trend of resistance with flow rate is crucial. Then friction slope or friction velocity seems to be better choice.

The paper presents estimates of the friction velocity in unsteady flow using two formulas that have been derived from the two-dimensional Reynolds and one-dimensional Saint-Venant equations. Experiments on unsteady flow were performed to collect data on the spatio-temporal evolution of the water level and velocity necessary to apply the formulas. The key feature of these experiments is high temporal resolution of the data. The application of the formulas is presented with an in-depth analysis of the flow conditions, methods for estimating the input variables and an uncertainty analysis of the results. The evaluation of the input variables focuses on the spatial derivative of water depth, which is the most problematic variable in this study. A comparison of the formulas for the friction velocity shows that they are equivalent for the cases presented in this paper.