The present study was done to examine the status of dietary sodium intake and dietary sources of sodium among Chinese adults. Data were obtained from China National Nutrition and Health Surveillance (CNNHS) 2010–2012. All adults recruited in this study provided complete dietary data on three-day consecutive 24-h dietary recalls combining with the household weighing method. Sodium intake was adjusted for energy to 2000 kcal/day using the residual method. Average sodium intake was 5013 (95% Confidence Interval, CI: 4858, 5168) mg/day, and 92.6% of adults’ sodium intake exceeded the standard in the Chinese proposed intake for preventing non-communicable chronic diseases (PI-NCD). The salt added to food was the main contributor to daily sodium intake, representing 69.2% of the total sodium consumption. The proportion of sodium from salt was different in some subgroups. The contribution ranged from 64.8% for those who came from urban areas aged 18–49 years old to 74.7% for those who came from rural areas with education levels of primary school or less, and sodium from soy sauce was the next highest contributor (8.2%). The proportion of the subjects with sodium intake contributed by flour products was higher in the north with 7.1% than the south with 1.4%. The average consumption of sodium among Chinese was more than the recommended amount, and salt was the main source of sodium.

Objective: The object of the present study was to estimate the relationship between maternal vitamin D deficiency during pregnancy and low birth weight by systematically review prevalence studies. Methods: We collected data from relevant studies published up to April 2019 using predefined inclusion/exclusion criteria. And all the studies were searched in PubMed, Embase, Cochrane Library and Web of Science. Results: A total of 16 studies met the criteria and were included in the meta-analysis. When compared with normal serum levels of vitamin D, the maternal vitamin D deficiency had an increased risk of low birth weight (OR = 2.39; 95%CI 1.25–4.57; p = 0.008), and same results were found in the comparison of the mean (the total mean birth weight decreased by 0.08 kg; 95%CI −0.10 to −0.06; p < 0.001). Conclusion: The evidence from this meta-analysis indicates a consistent association between vitamin D deficiency during pregnancy and an increased risk of low birth weight, and preventing maternal vitamin D deficiency may be an important public health strategy to help decrease the risk of low birth weight.

The burden of cardiovascular diseases (CVDs) is on the rise in China, yet a comprehensive and systematic understanding of the temporal trends and distribution of CVD burden attributable to dietary factors across the provinces remains elusive. This study endeavors to provide a comprehensive depiction of the burden of CVDs attributable to dietary risk factors across China’s geographical regions from 2002 to 2018. Data from the China National Nutrition Surveys, the China Chronic Disease and Risk Factor Surveillance, the Hypertension Survey, and the Chinese Centre for Disease Control and Prevention cause-of-death reporting system were used to estimate the intake of dietary factor, the number of deaths, and disability-adjusted life years (DALYs), mortality rate, for ischemic heart disease (IHD), ischemic stroke (IS), hemorrhage and other stroke (HOS) attributable to dietary factors at national and provincial levels in China from 2002 to 2018. Using a comparative risk assessment approach, we estimated the proportion of CVDs burden attributable to suboptimal intake of seven dietary factors, both individually and collectively, among Chinese citizens aged 20 years or older. The mean consumption of whole grains, soybeans, nuts, vegetables, fruits, red meat, and sugar-sweetened beverages (SSBs) exhibited an upward trend from 2002 to 2018. However, with the exception of red meat and SSBs, the average intake remained below the levels recommended levels outlined in the Chinese national dietary guidelines. Inadequate fruit, whole grain, and vegetables intake were the leading dietary risk factors for IHD, IS and HOS in China, while nuts, soybean and SSB were only associated with IHD mortality. From 2002 to 2018, the number of deaths and mortality rate for CVDs attributable to suboptimal diet among Chinese males were greater than that of females. With increasing age, the diet-related mortality rate for CVDs increased substantially. In 2018, the nationwide mortality rate attributable to diet was found to be 77.9 (95% UI, 77.5–78.1) per 100,000 population for IHD, 34.1 (95% UI, 33.8–34.2) for IS, and 32.8 (95% UI, 32.4–32.8) for HOS. Suboptimal diet was responsible for 16.0 million (95% UI, 13.8–18.4) DALYs and 1137.1 (95% UI, 980.4–1312.3) DALYs per 100,000 population for stroke, and 13.9 million (95% UI, 11.8–16.3) DALYs and 990.2 (95% UI, 841.2–1158.6) DALYs for IHD. Across the provinces of China, in 2018, the highest age-standardized mortality rates of all diet-related deaths were observed in Shandong (92.8 [95% UI, 89.9–93.3]) for IHD, Heilongjiang (38.1 [95% UI, 36.2–38.8]) for IS, and Tibet (68.3 [95% UI, 65.0–70.1]) for HOS. The highest diet related DALYs were observed in Henan (1.4 million [95% UI, 1.2–1.6] for IS, and 1.3 million [95% UI, 1.1–1.5] for IHD). This study provides a comprehensive picture of the geographic variation and temporal trends of the burden of CVDs attributable to dietary risk factors at the national and provincial levels from 2002 to 2018 in China, highlighting the need for geographically targeted intervention strategies to improve the quality of diet and reduce the diet-related burden of CVDs. 10.13039/501100012166 National Key Research and Development Program of China (2018YFC1315303), 10.13039/501100001809 National Natural Science Foundation of China (82103966).

The causal relationship between serum ferritin and metabolic syndrome (MetS) remains inconclusive. Dietary iron intake increases serum ferritin. The objective of this study was to evaluate associations of total, heme, and nonheme dietary iron intake with MetS and its components in men and women in metropolitan China. Data from 3099 participants in the Shanghai Diet and Health Survey (SDHS) obtained during 2012–2013 were included in this analysis. Dietary intake was assessed by 24-h diet records from 3 consecutive days. Multivariate generalized linear mixed models were used to evaluate the associations of dietary iron intake with MetS and its components. After adjustment for potential confounders as age, sex, income, physical exercise, smoking status, alcohol use, and energy intake, a positive trend was observed across quartiles of total iron intake and risk of MetS (p for trend = 0.022). Compared with the lowest quartile of total iron intake (<12.72 mg/day), the highest quartile (≥21.88 mg/day) had an odds ratio (95% confidence interval), OR (95% CI), of 1.59 (1.15,2.20). In addition, the highest quartile of nonheme iron intake (≥20.10 mg/day) had a 1.44-fold higher risk of MetS compared with the lowest quartile (<11.62 mg/day), and higher risks of MetS components were associated with the third quartiles of total and nonheme iron intake. There was no association between heme iron intake and risk of MetS (p for trend = 0.895). Associations for total and nonheme iron intake with MetS risk were found in men but not in women. Total and nonheme dietary iron intake was found to be positively associated with MetS and its components in the adult population in metropolitan China. This research also revealed a gender difference in the association between dietary iron intake and MetS.

Background: China’s diet transition might offer guidance to undeveloped countries on the way to prosperity. This report describes the trends and disparities in energy and macronutrient composition among Chinese adults, and between subpopulations. Methods: Data for the current study were obtained from the 1982, 1992, 2002, and 2010–2012 China National Nutrition Survey (CNNS) rounds, which were nationally representative cross-sectional surveys. We applied 24-h dietary recall and food weighing to assess dietary intake. Results: There were 204,877 participants aged 20 years or older included in the current analysis. From 1982 to 2012, the estimated energy intake declined from 2614.7 kcal to 2063.9 kcal. The trend in the estimated percentage of energy intake from fat showed a spike. It increased from 16.3% to 33.1% (1992 vs. 1982 difference, 7.6%; 95% CI 7.4% to 7.7%; 2002 vs. 1992 difference, 7.7%; 95% CI 7.6% to 7.9%; 2012 vs. 2002 difference, 1.6%; 95% CI 1.4% to 1.7%; p < 0.01 for trend). The trends coincided in all the subgroups (all p < 0.01 for trend) except for the subgroup of those educated over 15 years, whose percentage of energy intake from fat declined from 37.4% to 36.6% (2012 vs. 2002 difference, −0.8%; 95% CI −1.6% to 0.0%). The estimated percentage of energy intake from carbohydrates declined from 74.0% to 55.0%. The ranges of the estimated percentage of energy intake from fat, within population subgroups stratified by education level, area and Gross national product (GNP) level, were narrowed. Conclusions: Quick improvements in society and the economy effectively curbed undernutrition, but easily triggered overnutrition. Disparities persistently existed between different subpopulations, while the gaps would narrow if comprehensive efforts were made. Education might be a promising way to prevent overnutrition during prosperous progress. The low-social profile populations require specific interventions so as to avoid further disease burdens.