In the present work, we investigate the solar radiation climate of Saudi Arabia, using solar radiation data from 43 sites in the country covering the period 2013–2021. These data include hourly values of global, G, and diffuse, G_d, horizontal irradiances from which the direct, G_b, horizontal irradiance is estimated. The diffuse fraction, k_d; the direct-beam fraction, k_b; and the ratio k_e = G_d/G_b, are used in the analysis. Solar maps of the annual mean G, G_d, k_d, k_b, and k_e are prepared for Saudi Arabia under all- and clear-sky conditions, which show interesting but explainable patterns. Additionally, the intra-annual and seasonal variabilities of these parameters are presented, and regression equations are provided. We find that G_b has a negative linear relationship with k_d; the same applies to G with respect to k_d or the latitude, φ, of the site. It is shown that k_d and k_b can reflect the scattering and absorption effects of the atmosphere on solar radiation, respectively; therefore, they can be used as atmospheric scattering and absorption indices. Part of the analysis considers the defined solar energy zones in Saudi Arabia.

The Saudi government targets building eight solar plants across the country by 2030, which are expected to produce more than 3600 MW, enough to power more than 500,000 homes. However, the vast desert environment in Saudi Arabia increases dust and aerosol loading in the atmosphere, which affect the performance of photovoltaic systems due to scattering and absorption of the solar radiation by dust particles. In this work, ground-based data from weather stations located in six Saudi cities, Dammam, Hafar Al Batin, Riyadh, Jeddah, Najran, and Arar, along with data from the Moderate Resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer (MODIS) are used to examine the effects of dust loading on aerosol optical parameters, air temperature, and solar irradiance. The effects of three major dust storms that blew over different regions in Saudi Arabia on 20 March 2017, 23 April 2018, and 15 April 2021 have been investigated. It is found that there is a strong correlation between dust loading and aerosol optical parameters. The maximum Aerosol Optical Depth (AOD) was recorded over Jeddah on 19 March 2017 (about 2), over Riyadh on 20 March 2017 (about 2.3), over Riyadh on 24 April 2018 (about 1.5), and over Najran on 15 April 2021 (about 0.9). Strong dust events are found to reduce air temperature by a few degrees in high dust loading regions. The study found that such large dust loading decreases the direct and global solar irradiance components, while it increases the diffuse component over the cities of Jeddah, Riyadh, and Najran. This could be an indication that scattering from dust particles can play a significant role in the solar irradiance intensity.

The aim of this work is to study the variability of winter (monthly mean of DJF) air temperatures in Saudi Arabia. The study of the coefficient of variation (CV) of winter air temperature time series shows that the CV is a function of latitude, decreasing generally gradually from north to south. The highest values of CV during the winter season are mainly because of the migrating extratropical cyclones (Mediterranean cyclones) from west to east, and active subtropical jet, as well as the polar jet. The trend analysis illustrates that all stations have positive trends for the wintertime series. The study of decadal fluctuations in the behavior of winter temperature shows that the period from 1982 to 2010 is characterized in general by negative trend values in most northern stations of Saudi Arabia. In the middle of Saudi Arabia, negative trend values also appear but for the period 1983 to 2003. The southern and middle stations are distinguished by a positive trend during the period from 2003 to 2018.

This work examines the potential of some of the Gulf Cooperation Council countries (GCC) (Saudi Arabia (KSA), the United Arab Emirates (UAE), Qatar (QA), Bahrain (BH), Oman (OM)), Yemen (YE), Iraq (IQ), and Jordan (JO) to use their abundant solar radiation to generate electricity through PV technology. The study is structured to help decision-makers access the necessary data related to the status of solar-energy infrastructure and power production in the study region. The study investigates current efforts to establish PV technology and the challenges hindering the development of this technology. These efforts and challenges are then benchmarked against their status in Australia, which has climate and landscape conditions similar to those of the countries in the study region. It was found that Australia is successfully adopting solar energy in households and industrial locations despite its historical reliance on fossil fuels for energy production. This offers a potential avenue for replicating the Australian model of PV development in the study region. This work also addresses the effect of natural and anthropogenic aerosols on the performance of the PV panels. Meanwhile, it also proposes a conceptual model to help local governments and decision-makers in adopting solar-energy projects in the study region. Additionally, a preliminary carbon-footprint analysis of avoided emissions from PV energy utilization compared to national grid intensity was performed for each country. Findings show that the countries in the study region have great potential for using solar energy to gradually replace fossil fuels and protect the environment. It is observed that more hours of daylight and clear-to-scattered cloud coverage help increase solar irradiance near the ground all year around. Dust and aerosol loadings, however, were found to greatly reduce solar irradiance over the GCC area, especially during large dust events. Despite the high potential for harvesting solar energy in the study region, only a handful of PV plants and infrastructural facilities have been established, mostly in the KSA, the UAE, and Jordan. It was found that there is a critical need to put in place regulations, policies, and near-future vision to support solar energy generation and reduce reliance on fossil fuels for electricity production.

Aerosol is one of the major climate-forcing parameters which affect the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia in particular. The most relevant consideration that characterizes the aerosol properties and distribution is the Aerosol Optical Depth (AOD). In this study Modern Era Retrospective Analysis for Research and Applications (MERRA-2) AOD product from the year 1980–2021 is used to investigate aerosols pattern over the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia. The validation of the MERRA-2 AOD product is made by using AOD data retrieved from Aerosol Robotic Network (AERONET) stations located at Solar Village (SV) and at King Abdullah University of Science and Technology (KAUST). Various statistical analyses are performed to test the reliability of MERRA-2 data in the study region. The results of the statistical analysis indicate that MERRA-2 is highly correlated with both AERONET stations data. Thus, annual and seasonal aerosol climatology maps based on 41 years of MERRA-2 data are prepared and analyzed over the study region. The annual and seasonal aerosol climatology analysis of MERRA-2 data shows high density of AOD at southern and eastern regions while the low density emerges over the western and northern regions of the country during the study period. The results of the study are very encouraging, which increases our confidence level to use historical MERRA-2 AOD product to improve the knowledge on aerosols distribution over the region in future.