The neonicotinoid Clothianidin has a negative impact on NF-κB signaling and on immune responses controlled by this transcription factor, which can boost the proliferation of honey bee parasites and pathogens. This effect has been well documented for the replication of deformed wing virus (DWV) induced by Clothianidin in honey bees bearing an asymptomatic infection. Here, we conduct infestation experiments of treated bees to show that the immune-suppression exerted by Clothianidin is associated with an enhanced fertility of the parasitic mite Varroa destructor, as a possible consequence of a higher feeding efficiency. A conceptual model is proposed to describe the synergistic interactions among different stress agents acting on honey bees.

Endophytic fungi (EF) can enhance both plant growth and defense barriers against pests and pathogens, contributing to the reduction of chemical pesticides and fertilizers use in agriculture. Beauveria bassiana is an entomopathogenic fungus showing endophytism in several crops, often associated with a good capacity to limit the development of pests and disease agents. However, the diversity of the protective efficacy and plant response to different strains can be remarkable and needs to be carefully assessed for the successful and predictable use of these beneficial microorganisms. This study aims to select B. bassiana strains able to colonize tomato plants as endophytes as well as to control two important disease agents, Botrytis cinerea and Alternaria alternata, and the pest aphid, Macrosiphum euphorbiae. Nine wild-type isolates and one commercial strain were screened for endophytism, then further characterized for plant-growth promotion plus inhibition of disease development and pest infestation. Four isolates proved to have a good control activity against the biotic stressors tested, but only Bb716 was also able to promote plant growth. This work provides a simple workflow for the selection of beneficial EF, paving the way towards more effective use of B. bassiana in Integrate Pest Management (IPM) of tomato.

The rise of the holobiont concept confers a prominent importance to the endophytic associates of plants, particularly to species known to be able to exert a mutualistic role as defensive or growth-promoting agents. The finding that many entomopathogenic fungi are harbored within plant tissues and possess bioactive properties going beyond a merely anti-insectan effect has recently prompted a widespread investigational activity concerning their occurrence and functions in crops, in the aim of an applicative exploitation conforming to the paradigm of sustainable agriculture. The related aspects particularly referring to species of Lecanicillium and Akanthomyces (Sordariomycetes, Cordycipitaceae) are revised in this paper, also in light of recent and ongoing taxonomic reassessments.

Plants generate energy flows through natural food webs, driven by competition for resources among organisms, which are part of a complex network of multitrophic interactions. Here, we demonstrate that the interaction between tomato plants and a phytophagous insect is driven by a hidden interplay between their respective microbiotas. Tomato plants colonized by the soil fungus Trichoderma afroharzianum , a beneficial microorganism widely used in agriculture as a biocontrol agent, negatively affects the development and survival of the lepidopteran pest Spodoptera littoralis by altering the larval gut microbiota and its nutritional support to the host. Indeed, experiments aimed to restore the functional microbial community in the gut allow a complete rescue. Our results shed light on a novel role played by a soil microorganism in the modulation of plant–insect interaction, setting the stage for a more comprehensive analysis of the impact that biocontrol agents may have on ecological sustainability of agricultural systems.

The range of interactions between Cladosporium, a ubiquitous fungal genus, and insects, a class including about 60% of the animal species, is extremely diverse. The broad case history of antagonism and mutualism connecting Cladosporium and insects is reviewed in this paper based on the examination of the available literature. Certain strains establish direct interactions with pests or beneficial insects or indirectly influence them through their endophytic development in plants. Entomopathogenicity is often connected to the production of toxic secondary metabolites, although there is a case where these compounds have been reported to favor pollinator attraction, suggesting an important role in angiosperm reproduction. Other relationships include mycophagy, which, on the other hand, may reflect an ecological advantage for these extremely adaptable fungi using insects as carriers for spreading in the environment. Several Cladosporium species colonize insect structures, such as galleries of ambrosia beetles, leaf rolls of attelabid weevils and galls formed by cecidomyid midges, playing a still uncertain symbiotic role. Finally, the occurrence of Cladosporium in the gut of several insect species has intriguing implications for pest management, also considering that some strains have proven to be able to degrade insecticides. These interactions especially deserve further investigation to understand the impact of these fungi on pest control measures and strategies to preserve beneficial insects.

Background: Venom is one of the most important sources of regulation factors used by parasitic Hymenoptera to redirect host physiology in favour of the developing offspring. This has stimulated a number of studies, both at functional and “omics” level, which, however, are still quite limited for ectophagous parasitoids that permanently paralyze and suppress their victims (i.e., idiobiont parasitoids).Results: Here we present a combined transcriptomic and proteomic study of the venom of the generalist idiobiont waspBracon nigricans, an ectophagous larval parasitoid of different lepidopteran species, for which we recently described the host regulation strategy and the functional role of the venom in the induction of physiological changes in parasitized hosts. The experimental approach used led to the identification of the main components ofB. nigricansvenom involved in host regulation. Enzymes degrading lipids, proteins and carbohydrates are likely involved in the mobilization of storage nutrients from the fat body and may concurrently be responsible for the release of neurotoxic fatty acids inducing paralysis, and for the modulation of host immune responses.Conclusion: The present work contributes to fill the gap of knowledge on venom composition in ectoparasitoid wasps, and, along with our previous physiological study on this species, provides the foundation on which to develop a functional model of host regulation, based both on physiological and molecular data. This paves the way towards a better understanding of parasitism evolution in the basal lineages of Hymenoptera and to the possible exploitation of venom as source of bioinsecticidal molecules.