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Severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) was first identified in Wuhan, China, in late 2019 and is the causative agent of the coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) pandemic. Quantitative reverse-transcription polymerase chain reaction (qRT-PCR) represents the gold standard for diagnostic assays even if it cannot precisely quantify viral RNA copies. Thus, we decided to compare qRT-PCR with digital polymerase chain reaction (dPCR), which is able to give an accurate number of RNA copies that can be found in a specimen. However, the aforementioned methods are not capable to discriminate if the detected RNA is infectious or not. For this purpose, it is necessary to perform an endpoint titration on cell cultures, which is largely used in the research field and provides a tissue culture infecting dose per mL (TCID50/mL) value. Both research and diagnostics call for a model that allows the comparison between the results obtained employing different analytical methods. The aim of this study is to define a comparison among two qRT-PCR protocols (one with preliminary RNA extraction and purification and an extraction-free qRT-PCR), a dPCR and a titration on cell cultures. The resulting correlations yield a faithful estimation of the total number of RNA copies and of the infectious viral burden from a Ct value obtained with diagnostic routine tests. All these estimations take into consideration methodological errors linked to the qRT-PCR, dPCR and titration assays.
Martina Brandolini; Francesca Taddei; Maria Marino; Laura Grumiro; Agata Scalcione; Maria Turba; Fabio Gentilini; Michela Fantini; Silvia Zannoli; Giorgio Dirani; Vittorio Sambri. Correlating qRT-PCR, dPCR and Viral Titration for the Identification and Quantification of SARS-CoV-2: A New Approach for Infection Management. Viruses 2021, 13, 1022 .
AMA StyleMartina Brandolini, Francesca Taddei, Maria Marino, Laura Grumiro, Agata Scalcione, Maria Turba, Fabio Gentilini, Michela Fantini, Silvia Zannoli, Giorgio Dirani, Vittorio Sambri. Correlating qRT-PCR, dPCR and Viral Titration for the Identification and Quantification of SARS-CoV-2: A New Approach for Infection Management. Viruses. 2021; 13 (6):1022.
Chicago/Turabian StyleMartina Brandolini; Francesca Taddei; Maria Marino; Laura Grumiro; Agata Scalcione; Maria Turba; Fabio Gentilini; Michela Fantini; Silvia Zannoli; Giorgio Dirani; Vittorio Sambri. 2021. "Correlating qRT-PCR, dPCR and Viral Titration for the Identification and Quantification of SARS-CoV-2: A New Approach for Infection Management." Viruses 13, no. 6: 1022.
Lyme disease (LD), caused by infection with Borrelia burgdorferi, is the most common tick-borne infection in many regions of Eurasia. Antibody detection is the most frequently used laboratory test, favoring a two-step serodiagnostic algorithm; immunoenzymatic detection of antibodies to C6 has been shown to perform similarly to a standard two-step workflow. The aim of this study was the performance evaluation of the C6 Lyme ELISA kit compared to a standard two-step algorithm in three laboratories located in the northeastern region of Italy which cater to areas with different LD epidemiology. A total of 804 samples were tested, of which 695 gave concordant results between C6 testing and routine workflow (564 negative, 131 positive). Wherever available, clinical presentation and additional laboratory tests were analyzed to solve discrepancies. The C6 based method showed a good concordance with the standard two-step algorithm (Cohen’s κ = 0.619), however, the distribution of discrepancies seems to point towards a slightly lower specificity of C6 testing, which is supported by literature and could impact on patient management. The C6 ELISA, therefore, is not an ideal stand-alone test; however, if integrated into a two-step algorithm, it might play a part in achieving a sensitive, specific laboratory diagnosis of LD.
Silvia Zannoli; Michela Fantini; Simona Semprini; Barbara Marchini; Barbara Ceccarelli; Monica Sparacino; Pasqua Schiavone; Anna Belgrano; Maurizio Ruscio; Martina Gobbetti; Maira Nicoletti; Eva Robatscher; Elisabetta Pagani; Vittorio Sambri. Multicenter Evaluation of the C6 Lyme ELISA Kit for the Diagnosis of Lyme Disease. Microorganisms 2020, 8, 457 .
AMA StyleSilvia Zannoli, Michela Fantini, Simona Semprini, Barbara Marchini, Barbara Ceccarelli, Monica Sparacino, Pasqua Schiavone, Anna Belgrano, Maurizio Ruscio, Martina Gobbetti, Maira Nicoletti, Eva Robatscher, Elisabetta Pagani, Vittorio Sambri. Multicenter Evaluation of the C6 Lyme ELISA Kit for the Diagnosis of Lyme Disease. Microorganisms. 2020; 8 (3):457.
Chicago/Turabian StyleSilvia Zannoli; Michela Fantini; Simona Semprini; Barbara Marchini; Barbara Ceccarelli; Monica Sparacino; Pasqua Schiavone; Anna Belgrano; Maurizio Ruscio; Martina Gobbetti; Maira Nicoletti; Eva Robatscher; Elisabetta Pagani; Vittorio Sambri. 2020. "Multicenter Evaluation of the C6 Lyme ELISA Kit for the Diagnosis of Lyme Disease." Microorganisms 8, no. 3: 457.
The spread of carbapenem-resistant Enterobacteriaceae (CRE) has been enabled by the lack of control measures directed at carriers of multidrug-resistant organisms in healthcare settings. Screening patients for asymptomatic colonization on the one hand, and implementation of contact precautions on the other hand, reduces patient-to-patient transmission. Screening plates represents a relatively low-cost method for isolating CRE from rectal swabs; however, molecular assays have become widely available. This study compared the performance of four commercial molecular platforms in detecting clinically significant carbapenemase genes versus routine screening for CRE. A total of 1015 non-duplicated rectal swabs were cultured on a chromogenic carbapenem-resistant selective medium. All growing Enterobacteriaceae strains were tested for carbapenemase-related genes. The same specimens were processed using the following molecular assays: Allplex™ Entero-DR, Amplidiag® CarbaR + MCR, AusDiagnostics MT CRE EU, and EasyScreen™ ESBL/CPO. The prevalence of Klebsiella pneumoniae carbapenemase (KPC)-producing Enterobacteriaceae detected by swab culture was 2.2%, while organisms producing oxacillinase (OXA)-48 and metallo-β-lactamases were infrequent. The cost of CRE-related infection control precautions, which must be kept in place while waiting for screening results, are significant, so the molecular tests could become cost-competitive, especially when the turnaround time is decreased dramatically. Molecular assays represent a powerful diagnostic tool as they allow the rapid detection of the most clinically relevant carbapenemases.
Francesca Del Bianco; Manuela Morotti; Silvia Zannoli; Giorgio Dirani; Michela Fantini; Maria Federica Pedna; Patrizia Farabegoli; Vittorio Sambri. Comparison of Four Commercial Screening Assays for the Detection of blaKPC, blaNDM, blaIMP, blaVIM, and blaOXA48 in Rectal Secretion Collected by Swabs. Microorganisms 2019, 7, 704 .
AMA StyleFrancesca Del Bianco, Manuela Morotti, Silvia Zannoli, Giorgio Dirani, Michela Fantini, Maria Federica Pedna, Patrizia Farabegoli, Vittorio Sambri. Comparison of Four Commercial Screening Assays for the Detection of blaKPC, blaNDM, blaIMP, blaVIM, and blaOXA48 in Rectal Secretion Collected by Swabs. Microorganisms. 2019; 7 (12):704.
Chicago/Turabian StyleFrancesca Del Bianco; Manuela Morotti; Silvia Zannoli; Giorgio Dirani; Michela Fantini; Maria Federica Pedna; Patrizia Farabegoli; Vittorio Sambri. 2019. "Comparison of Four Commercial Screening Assays for the Detection of blaKPC, blaNDM, blaIMP, blaVIM, and blaOXA48 in Rectal Secretion Collected by Swabs." Microorganisms 7, no. 12: 704.
West Nile virus (WNV) and Usutu virus (USUV) are neurotropic mosquito-borne flaviviruses that may infect humans. Although WNV is much more widespread and plays a much larger role in human health, the two viruses are characterized by similar envelope antigens, clinical manifestations, and present overlapping in terms of geographic range of transmission, host, and vector species. This review highlights some of the most relevant aspects of WNV and USUV human infections in Europe, and the possible implications of their co-circulation.
Silvia Zannoli; Vittorio Sambri. West Nile Virus and Usutu Virus Co-Circulation in Europe: Epidemiology and Implications. Microorganisms 2019, 7, 184 .
AMA StyleSilvia Zannoli, Vittorio Sambri. West Nile Virus and Usutu Virus Co-Circulation in Europe: Epidemiology and Implications. Microorganisms. 2019; 7 (7):184.
Chicago/Turabian StyleSilvia Zannoli; Vittorio Sambri. 2019. "West Nile Virus and Usutu Virus Co-Circulation in Europe: Epidemiology and Implications." Microorganisms 7, no. 7: 184.
Gastroenteritis caused by single or multiple pathogens remains a major diagnostic challenge for the laboratory, as diagnosis is achieved using different techniques with variable sensitivity and specificity. The aim of this study was to evaluate the EasyScreen™ Enteric Protozoa Detection Kit, a multiplex PCR assay for the detection and identification of the 5 most common protozoan parasites in fecal samples. A total of 632 fecal samples, submitted for routine screening to 2 centers in north-eastern Italy, was included in the study. The results of the molecular assay were compared to those of the standard diagnostic procedures, represented by microscopy and immunoassays. Out of 32 samples testing positive by conventional tools, 31 were detected as concordantly positive using the EasyScreen Kit. Additionally, 91 out of 632 samples only tested positive by the molecular test, therefore increasing the positive detection rate by 275%. Finally, the EasyScreen assay detected 14 co-infections compared to 3 co-infections identified by conventional methods. The EasyScreen Kit provided a rapid and sensitive simultaneous identification of the most important diarrhea-causing protozoa that infect humans. Additionally, this molecular assay presents several advantages compared to conventional tools, such as the standardization and near-total automation of the process. Although critical issues related to the employment of molecular assays are still evident, the system is suitable for clinical parasitological diagnosis as long as it is used in association with conventional tools.
Giorgio Dirani; Silvia Zannoli; Elena Paesini; Patrizia Farabegoli; Barbara Dalmo; Caterina Vocale; Giovanna Liguori; Stefania Varani; Vittorio Sambri. Easyscreen™ Enteric Protozoa Assay for the Detection of Intestinal Parasites: A Retrospective Bi-Center Study. Journal of Parasitology 2019, 105, 58 -63.
AMA StyleGiorgio Dirani, Silvia Zannoli, Elena Paesini, Patrizia Farabegoli, Barbara Dalmo, Caterina Vocale, Giovanna Liguori, Stefania Varani, Vittorio Sambri. Easyscreen™ Enteric Protozoa Assay for the Detection of Intestinal Parasites: A Retrospective Bi-Center Study. Journal of Parasitology. 2019; 105 (1):58-63.
Chicago/Turabian StyleGiorgio Dirani; Silvia Zannoli; Elena Paesini; Patrizia Farabegoli; Barbara Dalmo; Caterina Vocale; Giovanna Liguori; Stefania Varani; Vittorio Sambri. 2019. "Easyscreen™ Enteric Protozoa Assay for the Detection of Intestinal Parasites: A Retrospective Bi-Center Study." Journal of Parasitology 105, no. 1: 58-63.
Intra-abdominal infections (IAIs) are one of the most common type of infections in patients with sepsis and an important cause of death in intensive care units. Early detection and treatment are necessary to reduce patient complications and improve outcomes. The Unyvero IAI Application (Curetis GmbH) is the first automated assay to rapidly and simultaneously identify a large panel of bacteria, fungi, toxins, and antibiotic resistance markers directly from IAI-related samples. The assay was evaluated in four European clinical laboratories in comparison to routine microbiological practices. A total of 300 clinical samples were tested with an overall sensitivity of 89.3% and specificity of 99.5%, while time to results was reduced by an average of about 17 h compared to identification (ID) results and 41 h compared to full antibiotic susceptibility testing (AST) results. The Unyvero IAI was able to detect additional microorganisms compared with culture, in particular anaerobes, with most detections confirmed by sequencing. The most frequent resistance markers detected were mecA/mecC (n = 25), aacA4 (n = 20), and blaCTX-M (n = 17) and carbapenemase genes were identified in nine specimens. Further studies are now required to determine the clinical impact of this new rapid test which could play a role in the successful treatment of IAI.
H. Ciesielczuk; M. Wilks; S. Castelain; M. Choquet; M. Morotti; E. Pluquet; V. Sambri; M. Tassinari; S. Zannoli; L. Cavalié; H. Dupont; H. Guet-Revillet. Multicenter performance evaluation of the Unyvero IAI cartridge for detection of intra-abdominal infections. European Journal of Clinical Microbiology & Infectious Diseases 2018, 37, 2107 -2115.
AMA StyleH. Ciesielczuk, M. Wilks, S. Castelain, M. Choquet, M. Morotti, E. Pluquet, V. Sambri, M. Tassinari, S. Zannoli, L. Cavalié, H. Dupont, H. Guet-Revillet. Multicenter performance evaluation of the Unyvero IAI cartridge for detection of intra-abdominal infections. European Journal of Clinical Microbiology & Infectious Diseases. 2018; 37 (11):2107-2115.
Chicago/Turabian StyleH. Ciesielczuk; M. Wilks; S. Castelain; M. Choquet; M. Morotti; E. Pluquet; V. Sambri; M. Tassinari; S. Zannoli; L. Cavalié; H. Dupont; H. Guet-Revillet. 2018. "Multicenter performance evaluation of the Unyvero IAI cartridge for detection of intra-abdominal infections." European Journal of Clinical Microbiology & Infectious Diseases 37, no. 11: 2107-2115.
Bloodstream infection (BSI) and associated sepsis represent a major source of mortality in industrialized countries. Prompt treatment with targeted antibiotics affects both the financial impact and the clinical outcome of BSI: every hour gained in initiating the correct antimicrobial therapy significantly increases the probability of patient survival. However, the current standard-of-care, which depends on blood culture-based diagnosis, are often unable to provide such a fast response. Fast and sensitive molecular techniques for the detection of sepsis-related pathogens from primary blood samples are strongly needed. The aim of this study was to assess the usefulness of the IRIDICA BAC BSI Assay, a PCR/ESI-MS-based technology for the early diagnosis of bloodstream infections from primary blood samples in critical patients. This evaluation has been performed by comparison with the traditional culture-based methods. The study was performed on a total of 300 prospective whole blood specimens obtained from patients suspected of sepsis, admitted to enrolling ER units from The Greater Romagna Area. The overall concordance between the two techniques was of 86%, with a calculated sensitivity of 76% and an assay specificity of 90%. The clinical significance of discrepant results was evaluated reviewing the patients’ clinical records and the results of additional relevant microbiological tests. The data here obtained support the ability of the IRIDICA BAC BSI Assay to identify a broad range of bacteria directly from primary whole blood samples, within eight hours. This might allow a timely administration of a suitable treatment.
Martina Tassinari; Silvia Zannoli; Patrizia Farabegoli; Maria Federica Pedna; Anna Pierro; Antonio Mastroianni; Riccardo Fontan; Luciano Luongo; Giuseppe Sarnataro; Elisa Menegatti; Assunta Caruso; Vittorio Sambri. Rapid diagnosis of bloodstream infections in the critically ill: Evaluation of the broad-range PCR/ESI-MS technology. PLOS ONE 2018, 13, e0197436 .
AMA StyleMartina Tassinari, Silvia Zannoli, Patrizia Farabegoli, Maria Federica Pedna, Anna Pierro, Antonio Mastroianni, Riccardo Fontan, Luciano Luongo, Giuseppe Sarnataro, Elisa Menegatti, Assunta Caruso, Vittorio Sambri. Rapid diagnosis of bloodstream infections in the critically ill: Evaluation of the broad-range PCR/ESI-MS technology. PLOS ONE. 2018; 13 (5):e0197436.
Chicago/Turabian StyleMartina Tassinari; Silvia Zannoli; Patrizia Farabegoli; Maria Federica Pedna; Anna Pierro; Antonio Mastroianni; Riccardo Fontan; Luciano Luongo; Giuseppe Sarnataro; Elisa Menegatti; Assunta Caruso; Vittorio Sambri. 2018. "Rapid diagnosis of bloodstream infections in the critically ill: Evaluation of the broad-range PCR/ESI-MS technology." PLOS ONE 13, no. 5: e0197436.
Claudia Chiesa; Agnese Denicolò; Ibrahima Dia; Cheikh T. Diagne; Diawo Diallo; Mawlouth Diallo; Alioune Gaye; Scott B. Halstead; Stephen Higgs; Susan Hills; Yan-Jang S. Huang; Stefan W. Metz; Thomas P. Monath; Manuela Morotti; Thomas E. Morrison; Anna Pierro; Gorben P. Pijlman; Ann M. Powers; Jamal I-Ching Sam; Vittorio Sambri; Martina Tassinari; Dana L. VanLandingham; Pedro F.C. Vasconcelos; Silvia Zannoli. Contributors. Chikungunya and Zika Viruses 2018, 1 .
AMA StyleClaudia Chiesa, Agnese Denicolò, Ibrahima Dia, Cheikh T. Diagne, Diawo Diallo, Mawlouth Diallo, Alioune Gaye, Scott B. Halstead, Stephen Higgs, Susan Hills, Yan-Jang S. Huang, Stefan W. Metz, Thomas P. Monath, Manuela Morotti, Thomas E. Morrison, Anna Pierro, Gorben P. Pijlman, Ann M. Powers, Jamal I-Ching Sam, Vittorio Sambri, Martina Tassinari, Dana L. VanLandingham, Pedro F.C. Vasconcelos, Silvia Zannoli. Contributors. Chikungunya and Zika Viruses. 2018; ():1.
Chicago/Turabian StyleClaudia Chiesa; Agnese Denicolò; Ibrahima Dia; Cheikh T. Diagne; Diawo Diallo; Mawlouth Diallo; Alioune Gaye; Scott B. Halstead; Stephen Higgs; Susan Hills; Yan-Jang S. Huang; Stefan W. Metz; Thomas P. Monath; Manuela Morotti; Thomas E. Morrison; Anna Pierro; Gorben P. Pijlman; Ann M. Powers; Jamal I-Ching Sam; Vittorio Sambri; Martina Tassinari; Dana L. VanLandingham; Pedro F.C. Vasconcelos; Silvia Zannoli. 2018. "Contributors." Chikungunya and Zika Viruses , no. : 1.
Silvia Zannoli; Manuela Morotti; Agnese Denicolò; Martina Tassinari; Claudia Chiesa; Anna Pierro; Vittorio Sambri. Chikungunya Virus and Zika Virus in Europe. Chikungunya and Zika Viruses 2018, 193 -214.
AMA StyleSilvia Zannoli, Manuela Morotti, Agnese Denicolò, Martina Tassinari, Claudia Chiesa, Anna Pierro, Vittorio Sambri. Chikungunya Virus and Zika Virus in Europe. Chikungunya and Zika Viruses. 2018; ():193-214.
Chicago/Turabian StyleSilvia Zannoli; Manuela Morotti; Agnese Denicolò; Martina Tassinari; Claudia Chiesa; Anna Pierro; Vittorio Sambri. 2018. "Chikungunya Virus and Zika Virus in Europe." Chikungunya and Zika Viruses , no. : 193-214.
Silvia Zannoli; Manuela Morotti; Agnese Denicolò; Martina Tassinari; Claudia Chiesa; Anna Pierro; Vittorio Sambri. Diagnostics and Laboratory Techniques. Chikungunya and Zika Viruses 2018, 293 -315.
AMA StyleSilvia Zannoli, Manuela Morotti, Agnese Denicolò, Martina Tassinari, Claudia Chiesa, Anna Pierro, Vittorio Sambri. Diagnostics and Laboratory Techniques. Chikungunya and Zika Viruses. 2018; ():293-315.
Chicago/Turabian StyleSilvia Zannoli; Manuela Morotti; Agnese Denicolò; Martina Tassinari; Claudia Chiesa; Anna Pierro; Vittorio Sambri. 2018. "Diagnostics and Laboratory Techniques." Chikungunya and Zika Viruses , no. : 293-315.
In this randomized study, we found no difference in sensitivity between DTT and sonication for the detection of PJI, and both of those tests were more sensitive than standard tissue cultures. Thus, cultures of sonication or DTT fluid should be considered important additional tools to standard cultures for definition of PJI and should be considered together with other criteria, especially in settings where infection is not suspected before revision surgery.Level of Evidence Level I, diagnostic study.
Andrea Sambri; Matteo Cadossi; Sandro Giannini; Giovanni Pignatti; Maurilio Marcacci; Maria Pia Neri; Alessandra Maso; Elisa Storni; Simonetta Gamberini; Susanna Naldi; Arianna Torri; Silvia Zannoli; Martina Tassinari; Michela Fantini; Giuseppe Bianchi; Davide Donati; Vittorio Sambri. Is Treatment With Dithiothreitol More Effective Than Sonication for the Diagnosis of Prosthetic Joint Infection? Clinical Orthopaedics & Related Research 2018, 476, 137 -145.
AMA StyleAndrea Sambri, Matteo Cadossi, Sandro Giannini, Giovanni Pignatti, Maurilio Marcacci, Maria Pia Neri, Alessandra Maso, Elisa Storni, Simonetta Gamberini, Susanna Naldi, Arianna Torri, Silvia Zannoli, Martina Tassinari, Michela Fantini, Giuseppe Bianchi, Davide Donati, Vittorio Sambri. Is Treatment With Dithiothreitol More Effective Than Sonication for the Diagnosis of Prosthetic Joint Infection? Clinical Orthopaedics & Related Research. 2018; 476 (1):137-145.
Chicago/Turabian StyleAndrea Sambri; Matteo Cadossi; Sandro Giannini; Giovanni Pignatti; Maurilio Marcacci; Maria Pia Neri; Alessandra Maso; Elisa Storni; Simonetta Gamberini; Susanna Naldi; Arianna Torri; Silvia Zannoli; Martina Tassinari; Michela Fantini; Giuseppe Bianchi; Davide Donati; Vittorio Sambri. 2018. "Is Treatment With Dithiothreitol More Effective Than Sonication for the Diagnosis of Prosthetic Joint Infection?" Clinical Orthopaedics & Related Research 476, no. 1: 137-145.
Background and aims. Bacterial vaginosis (BV) is one the more frequently identified genital syndrome among childbearing aged women. The basic condition that generates this condition is a modification in the vaginal microbiota. The aim of this paper is to briefly review the current status of the art of BV and to report the results of a pilot study performed with an innovative PCR based technique. Materials and Methods. 36 samples of vaginal fluid routinely submitted for the diagnosis of BV to the Unit of Microbiology – GRHL were comparatively evaluated by standard techniques and with the HP-Vaginiti e Vaginosi NLM kit that simultaneously detects in a quantitative way specific DNA from Candida (albicans, glabrata; krusei, tropicalis), Gardnerella vaginalis, Lactobacillus spp. and Atopobium vaginae. Results and conclusions. Candida spp. has been identified in 8 samples with culture and in 15 with the molecular test. 29 G. vaginalis were found by PCR whereas only in 7 samples a specific prescription for this microbe was present (of which 4 positive). A. vaginae has been identified in 20 samples by the molecular approach and Lactobacillus spp. was identified in 19 samples (by culture) and in 32 by PCR. The overall diagnosis of BV was made in 9 patients by standard techniques and in 7 by applying the molecular approach. (Cohen’s kappa test: 0,84). The findings of this study clearly demonstrate that the joint use of the routine culture- based techniques with the multiplex PCR methods amplifies by far the sensitivity of the overall diagnostic workflow of BV.
Giorgio Dirani; Silvia Zannoli; Maria Federica Pedna; Francesco Congestri; Patrizia Farabegoli; Barbara Dalmo; Vittorio Sambri. Bacterial vaginosis: epidemiologic, clinical and diagnostic updates. Microbiologia Medica 2017, 32, 1 .
AMA StyleGiorgio Dirani, Silvia Zannoli, Maria Federica Pedna, Francesco Congestri, Patrizia Farabegoli, Barbara Dalmo, Vittorio Sambri. Bacterial vaginosis: epidemiologic, clinical and diagnostic updates. Microbiologia Medica. 2017; 32 (4):1.
Chicago/Turabian StyleGiorgio Dirani; Silvia Zannoli; Maria Federica Pedna; Francesco Congestri; Patrizia Farabegoli; Barbara Dalmo; Vittorio Sambri. 2017. "Bacterial vaginosis: epidemiologic, clinical and diagnostic updates." Microbiologia Medica 32, no. 4: 1.
Zika virus was discovered in 1947. The first reported case of Zika fever was in a sentinel rhesus monkey in Uganda in 1947, while the first human cases were reported in Nigeria in 1954. Since the first evidence of human infection, Zika was active in several countries in Africa and Asia, as sporadic cases and serological evidence of Zika human infections have been demonstrated in several reports. The outbreak of Zika in Yap Island in 2007 is considered the first emergency of this infection. Since then Zika has spread worldwide with a large ongoing epidemic in South and Central America. A huge concern nowadays is about the relationship between Zika infection and microcephaly and about the sexual transmission of the virus. The first identified outbreak of Chikungunya human infection, with an incidence estimated at 23%, was reported from July 1952 to March 1953 in the Southern Province of the current Tanzania. Since then Chikungunya circulated mainly in continental Africa with limited outbreaks. The virus started to spread east bound involving most of the areas surroundings the Indian Ocean. In 2004/2005 a large outbreak developed in La Reunion a French territory in the Indian Ocean: from this point Chikungunya spread to India and from there, due a viraemic traveller returning from Kerala, to Italy where in the summer of 2007 the first outbreak with local viral transmission in a temperate climate zone occurred. In the following years Chikungunya moved to the Caribbean and South America. Recently also the USA experienced the spread of this virus and a limited outbreak based again on local spreading occurred in the French Department of Var, in August 2017.
Silvia Zannoli; Manuela Morotti; Agnese Denicolò; Martina Tassinari; Claudia Chiesa; Anna Pierro; Vittorio Sambri. Global epidemiology of Zika and Chikungunya virus human infections. Microbiologia Medica 2017, 32, 1 .
AMA StyleSilvia Zannoli, Manuela Morotti, Agnese Denicolò, Martina Tassinari, Claudia Chiesa, Anna Pierro, Vittorio Sambri. Global epidemiology of Zika and Chikungunya virus human infections. Microbiologia Medica. 2017; 32 (3):1.
Chicago/Turabian StyleSilvia Zannoli; Manuela Morotti; Agnese Denicolò; Martina Tassinari; Claudia Chiesa; Anna Pierro; Vittorio Sambri. 2017. "Global epidemiology of Zika and Chikungunya virus human infections." Microbiologia Medica 32, no. 3: 1.