Nanotechnology is a multidisciplinary science covering matters involving the nanoscale level that is being developed for a great variety of applications. Nanomedicine is one of these attractive and challenging uses focused on the employment of nanomaterials in medical applications such as drug delivery. However, handling these nanometric systems require defining specific parameters to establish the possible advantages and disadvantages in specific applications. This review presents the fundamental factors of nanoparticles and its microenvironment that must be considered to make an appropriate design for medical applications, mainly: (i) Interactions between nanoparticles and their biological environment, (ii) the interaction mechanisms, (iii) and the physicochemical properties of nanoparticles. On the other hand, the repercussions of the control, alter and modify these parameters in the biomedical applications. Additionally, we briefly report the implications of nanoparticles in nanomedicine and precision medicine, and provide perspectives in immunotherapy, which is opening novel applications as immune-oncology.

Arthropod vectors and parasites are identified morphologically or, more recently, by molecular methods. Both methods are time consuming and require expertise and, in the case of molecular methods, specific devices. Matrix-assisted laser desorption ionization time-of-flight mass spectrometry (MALDI-TOF MS) identification of bacteria has meant a major change in clinical microbiology laboratories because of its simplicity, speed and specificity, and its capacity to identify microorganisms, in some cases, directly from the sample (urine cultures, blood cultures). Recently, MALDI-TOF MS has been shown as useful for the identification of some parasites. On the other hand, the identification of vector arthropods and the control of their populations is essential for the control of diseases transmitted by arthropods, and in this aspect, it is crucial to have fast, simple and reliable methods for their identification. Ticks are blood-sucking arthropods with a worldwide distribution, that behave as efficient vectors of a wide group of human and animal pathogens, including bacteria, protozoa, viruses, and even helminths. They are capable of parasitizing numerous species of mammals, birds and reptiles. They constitute the second group of vectors of human diseases, after mosquitoes. MALDI-TOF MS has been shown as useful for the identification of different tick species, such as Ixodes, Rhipicephalus and Amblyomma. Some studies even suggest the possibility of being able to determine, through MALDI-TOF MS, if the arthropod is a carrier of certain microorganisms. Regarding mosquitoes, the main group of vector arthropods, the possibility of using MALDI-TOF MS for the identification of different species of Aedes and Anopheles has also been demonstrated. In this review, we address the possibilities of this technology for the identification of parasites and arthropod vectors, its characteristics, advantages and possible limitations.

The broad relationship between the immune system and cancer is opening a new hallmark to explore for nanomedicine. Here, all the common and synergy points between both areas are reviewed and described, and the recent approaches which show the progress from the bench to the beside to biomarkers developed in nanomedicine and onco-immunotherapy.

Nowadays, safe and efficacious vaccines represent powerful and cost-effective tools for global health and economic growth. In the veterinary field, these are undoubtedly key tools for improving productivity and fighting zoonoses. However, cases of persistent infections, rapidly evolving pathogens having high variability or emerging/re-emerging pathogens for which no effective vaccines have been developed point out the continuing need for new vaccine alternatives to control outbreaks. Most licensed vaccines have been successfully used for many years now; however, they have intrinsic limitations, such as variable efficacy, adverse effects, and some shortcomings. More effective adjuvants and novel delivery systems may foster real vaccine effectiveness and timely implementation. Emerging vaccine technologies involving nanoparticles such as self-assembling proteins, virus-like particles, liposomes, virosomes, and polymeric nanoparticles offer novel, safe, and high-potential approaches to address many vaccine development-related challenges. Nanotechnology is accelerating the evolution of vaccines because nanomaterials having encapsulation ability and very advantageous properties due to their size and surface area serve as effective vehicles for antigen delivery and immunostimulatory agents. This review discusses the requirements for an effective, broad-coverage-elicited immune response, the main nanoplatforms for producing it, and the latest nanovaccine applications for fighting animal pathogens.