Ginseng is a traditional medicinal herb commonly consumed world-wide owing to its unique family of saponins called ginsenosides. The absorption and bioavailability of ginsenosides mainly depend on an individual’s gastrointestinal bioconversion abilities. There is a need to improve ginseng processing to predictably increase the pharmacologically active of ginsenosides. Various types of ginseng, such as fresh, white, steamed, acid-processed, and fermented ginsengs, are available. The various ginseng processing methods produce a range ginsenoside compositions with diverse pharmacological properties. This review is intended to summarize the properties of the ginsenosides found in different Panax species as well as the different processing methods. The sugar moiety attached to the C–3, C–6, or C–20 deglycosylated to produce minor ginsenosides, such as Rb1, Rb2, Rc, Rd→Rg3, F2, Rh2; Re, Rf→Rg1, Rg2, F1, Rh1. The malonyl-Rb1, Rb2, Rc, and Rd were demalonylated into ginsenoside Rb1, Rb2, Rc, and Rd by dehydration. Dehydration also produces minor ginsenosides such as Rg3→Rk1, Rg5, Rz1; Rh2→Rk2, Rh3; Rh1→Rh4, Rk3; Rg2→Rg6, F4; Rs3→Rs4, Rs5; Rf→Rg9, Rg10. Acetylation of several ginsenosides may generate acetylated ginsenosides Rg5, Rk1, Rh4, Rk3, Rs4, Rs5, Rs6, and Rs7. Acid processing methods produces Rh1→Rk3, Rh4; Rh2→Rk1, Rg5; Rg3→Rk2, Rh3; Re, Rf, Rg2→F1, Rh1, Rf2, Rf3, Rg6, F4, Rg9. Alkaline produces Rh16, Rh3, Rh1, F4, Rk1, ginsenoslaloside-I, 20(S)-ginsenoside-Rh1-60-acetate, 20(R)-ginsenoside Rh19, zingibroside-R1 through hydrolysis, hydration addition reactions, and dehydration. Moreover, biological processing of ginseng generates the minor ginsenosides of Rg3, F2, Rh2, CK, Rh1, Mc, compound O, compound Y through hydrolysis reactions, and synthetic ginsenosides Rd12 and Ia are produced through glycosylation. This review with respect to the properties of particular ginsenosides could serve to increase the utilization of ginseng in agricultural products, food, dietary supplements, health supplements, and medicines, and may also spur future development of novel highly functional ginseng products through a combination of various processing methods.

Purpose: Thrombotic stroke is a type of ischemic stroke characterized by motor dysfunction and memory impairments. In the present study, the effect of treadmill exercise on motor function and short-term memory was evaluated in relation with synaptic plasticity in the mice with photothrombotic stroke.Methods: Photothrombotic stroke was induced by cortical photothrombotic vascular occlusion. The mice in the treadmill exercise groups performed running on a motorized treadmill for 28 days. Motor function was determined using rota-rod test and foot fault test. Step-through avoidance task was conducted to evaluate short-term memory. Immunohistochemistry for 5-bromo-2′-deoxyuridine and doublecortin was conducted to detect new cell generation. Postsynaptic density protein 95, synaptophysin, brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF), and tyrosine kinase B receptor (TrkB) were determined using western blot. The number of dendritic spines was determined using Golgi stain.Results: Treadmill exercise improved motor function and short-term memory in mice with the photothrombotic stroke. The infarct size was reduced and the number of dendritic spines and expression of postsynaptic density protein 95 and synaptophysin in the peri-infarct cortex and hippocampus were increased by treadmill exercise in photothrombotic stroke mice. Treadmill exercise enhanced neurogenesis through increasing the expression of the hippocampal BDNF and TrkB in photothrombotic stroke mice.Conclusions: Treadmill exercise improved motor function and short-term memory through increasing synaptic plasticity and neurogenesis in photothrombotic stroke mice. Treadmill exercise can be used as an effective treatment strategy to improve brain function related to stroke.

Dendropanax morbifera is a versatile plant that has been used as a herbal medicine due to its various useful medicinal effects. To protect its active component from biological stress and increase its drug efficacy as well as drug bioavailability, nanoemulsion was prepared. Dendropanax morbifera zinc oxide nanoparticles (DM-ZnO NPs) were synthesized using the plant extract via the co-precipitation method and loaded with active indole-3-carbinol for nanoemulsion formulation using the ultrasonication process. Field emission transmission electron microscope revealed the flower shape of the Dendropanax morbifera indole-3-carbinol zinc oxide nanoemulsion (DM-ZnO-I3C-NE). In contrast, DM-ZnO NPs showed a spheroid shape that coincides agreeably with field emission electron scanning microscope. The hydrodynamic sizes by dynamic light scattering are about 65 ± 3 nm and 239.6 ± 6 nm and the crystallite sizes from X-ray diffraction are 11.52 nm and 16.07 nm for DM-ZnO NPs and DM-ZnO-I3C-NE, respectively. In vitro analysis revealed the cytotoxicity of DM-ZnO-I3C-NE against a human lung cancer cell line (A549) at 12.5 µg/mL as well as reactive oxygen species (ROS) production. The DM-ZnO-I3C-NE-induced ROS generation level was higher than that of DM-ZnO NPs and free indole-3-carbinol. The synergistic effect of DM-ZnO and indole-3-carbinol indicates DM-ZnO-I3C-NE as a potential candidate for future lung cancer drug and could be scope for functional food.

Inflammatory bowel disease (IBD) is a major risk factor of colorectal cancer. Drugs currently used for IBD exhibit adverse effects including vomiting, nausea, and diarrhea. Naturally derived novel alternative therapies are required to overcome these limitations. In this study, we investigated the protective effects of ethanol extract of Cicer arietinum (CEE) in a dextran sodium sulfate (DSS)-induced mouse model of colitis. CEE markedly improved DSS-induced clinical symptoms and histological status, such as the disease activity index, spleen weight, and colon length. Moreover, CEE-treated mice showed significant recovery of DSS-induced crypt damage and cell death. CEE suppressed myeloperoxidase (MPO) activity and macrophage marker F4/80 mRNA expression in colonic tissue of mice with DSS-induced colitis, indicating neutrophil infiltration and macrophage accumulation, respectively. Although DSS upregulated pro-inflammatory mediators and activated transcription factors, CEE downregulated the mRNA expression of cytokines including interleukin-6, interleukin-1β, and tumor necrosis factor-α, protein expression of cyclooxygenase-2 and inducible nitric oxide synthase, as well as activation of nuclear factor-kappa B (NF-κB) and signal transducer and activator of transcription 3 (STAT3). Hence, our findings reveal that the anti-inflammatory properties of CEE, involving the downregulation of the expression of pro-inflammatory mediators by inactivating NF-κB and STAT3 in DSS-induced colitis mice.

Goserelin is a drug used for chemical castration. In a rat model, we investigated whether surgical and chemical castration affected memory ability through the protein kinase A (PKA)/cyclic adenosine monophosphate response elementbinding protein (CREB)/brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) and c-Raf/mitogen-activated protein kinases-extracellular signal-regulated kinases (MEK)/extracellular signal-regulated kinases (ERK) pathways in the hippocampus. Orchiectomy was performed for surgical castration and goserelin acetate was subcutaneously transplanted into the anterior abdominal wall for chemical castration. Immunohistochemistry was done to quantify neurogenesis. To assess the involvement of the PKA/CREB/BDNF and c-Raf/MEK/ERK pathways in the memory process, western blots were used. The orchiectomy group and the goserelin group showed less neurogenesis and impaired short-term and spatial memory. Phosphorylation of PKA/CREB/BDNF and phosphorylation of c-Raf/MEK/ERK decreased in the orchiectomy and goserelin groups. Short-term memory and spatial memory were affected by surgical and chemical castration via the PKA/CREB/BDNF and c-Raf/MEK/ERK signaling pathways.