Hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) is the most common primary liver cancer with dismal prognosis when diagnosed at advanced stages. Surgical resection of the primary tumor or orthotropic liver transplantation serves as a potential curative option. However, this approach is highly dependent on the hepatic reserve and baseline functional status of the patient. Liver directed therapies such as portal vein embolization (PVE), trans-arterial chemoembolization (TACE), and systemic chemotherapy are employed in non-surgical candidates. Sorafenib was the only approved systemic therapeutic agent for almost a decade until the recent approval of lenvatinib by the United States Food and Drug Administration (FDA) as an alternate first-line agent. Regorafenib, nivolumab, pembrolizumab and cabozantinib are approved by the FDA as second-line agents in patients who failed or could not tolerate sorafenib. Ramucirumab was recently FDA approved for the subset of patients that have high alfa-fetoprotein levels (>400 ng/mL). A better understanding of tumorigenesis and encouraging clinical trial results that evaluated immune-checkpoint inhibitors opened doors for immunotherapy in HCC. Immune checkpoint inhibitors have demonstrated a prolonged median overall and progression-free survival in a subset of patients with HCC. On-going translational and clinical research will hopefully provide us with a better understanding of tumor markers, genetic aberrations and other factors that determine the immunotherapy response in HCC. In this review, we sought to summarize the potential role and future directions of immunotherapy in the management of HCC.

Cost-effectiveness in managing skeletal related events in breast cancer: a strategy of less-intense dosing schedule of bone modifying agents

We report a case of a young woman with advanced HIV/AIDS who presented with a short duration of fever and shortness of breath, with no recent travel history or previous hospitalisation, accompanied by non-specific abdominal symptoms and suspicious upper gastrointestinal bleed. Her CD4 count was 1 cell/μL raising the suspicious for various opportunistic aetiologies. The initial suspicion was for pneumocystis pneumonia (PCP) and the patient was treated empirically with antimicrobials. Peripheral smear findings, urinary antigen tests and bronchoalveolar lavage (BAL) were suggestive of disseminated histoplasmosis. PCP was ruled out in BAL. Transabdominal imaging was concerning for periaortic lymphadenopathy raising the suspicion of occult malignancy. Endoscopic evaluation of her digestive tract was unrevealing. Endoscopic ultrasound fine-needle aspiration (EUS-FNA) confirmed histoplasmosis. She received a liposomal amphotericin B for 10 days followed by itraconazole with significant improvement. Her CD4 count was found to be the lowest reported count with a single opportunistic pathogen.

Pericardial effusion and cardiac tamponade can develop in patients with virtually any condition that affects the pericardium. A high index of suspicion with proper diagnostic scheme can lessen the concomitant morbidity and mortality. Although cardiac tamponade mimics many medical conditions, internists and primary care physicians should be aware of the physiological and clinical aspects of the disease spectrum.