Background: Finding precise definitions of secondary traumatic stress, vicarious traumatization, and compassion fatigue is not easy. While some researchers define these terms differentially, others use them interchangeably. In the present review, we refer to all three phenomena as secondary traumatization. Objectives: This systematic review aims to provide an overview of prevalence rates of secondary traumatization in first responders and to shed light on corresponding resilience and risk factors. Methods: After identifying 219 studies within the searched databases and 2192 references via hand searching, 31 studies were included in this review. We systematically searched the electronic databases PubMed, PsychINFO, and PSYNDEX (German database). The following inclusion criteria were applied: (1) participants had to be first responders working on-site: police officers, firefighters, search and rescue personnel, or emergency and paramedic team members; (2) secondary traumatization (secondary traumatic stress/vicarious traumatization/compassion fatigue) was assessed quantitatively with a validated questionnaire or subscale explicitly measuring secondary traumatization; and (3) English or German language original papers. Results: We found low levels of secondary traumatization in first responders. Several studies describe protective and risk factors for secondary traumatization, including pretraumatic (e.g. age, gender), peritraumatic (e.g. exposure, emotional exhaustion), and post-traumatic factors (e.g. social support, alcohol and tobacco use). Conclusion: Next to an immunizing effect, the low prevalence of secondary traumatization in first responders could be explained by social desirability and job-loss concerns. Therefore, we may be underestimating the prevalence of secondary traumatization in first responders. Some resilience (social support) and risk factors (female gender) are consistent with previous research in other populations. However, owing to the cross-sectional study designs, we must interpret resilience and risk factors with caution. Future research should focus on longitudinal study designs and preventive as well as curative interventions.

Volunteers active in psychosocial emergency care offer psychological first aid to survivors of accidents and trauma, their relatives, eye witnesses, bystanders, and other first responders. So far, there are no studies that investigate the secondary and primary traumatization of this group of first responders. We included N = 75 volunteers, who filled out questionnaires to assess their secondary (QST/FST) and primary traumatization (PDS), and levels of comorbid psychological stress (PHQ-9, GAD-7, SF-12). We investigated factors of resilience by measuring attachment behavior (ECR-RD, RQ-2), level of personality functioning (OPD-SFK), sense of coherence (SOC-29), social support (F-SozU), and mindfulness (MAAS). The volunteers’ levels of secondary and primary traumatization were below cut-off scores. Their levels of comorbid psychological stress were comparable to representative norm samples. Additionally, the volunteers presented high levels of resilience. Gender (β = 0.26; p < 0.05), case discussions (β = −0.37; p < 0.05), and social support (β = 0.45; p < 0.01) were revealed to be predictors of secondary traumatization, while mindfulness turned out to be a predictor of primary traumatization (β = −0.34; p = 0.008). However, we cannot rule out that the low prevalence of traumatization and comorbid psychological stress in our study sample might not be explained by a positive response bias.

Aims and objectives To test a mediating effect of compassion satisfaction on the relationship between personality traits (Big Five) and intent to leave. Background Nursing professionals work in high-stress environments and exhibit more emotional distress and mental health disorders than other hospital professionals. This translates to increased intention to leave their profession. Evidence suggests that compassion satisfaction reduces intention to leave. Research also indicates that personality factors are associated with compassion satisfaction and intent to leave. Design Using a cross-sectional design, we collected data from 536 nurses in a maximum-care hospital in Germany via questionnaires; the analyses included 518 participants. Method We applied the structural equation model and followed the STROBE checklist. Results 30% of our study participants reported high intent to leave. Compassion satisfaction mediated the relationship between agreeableness and intent to leave. Openness to experience and neuroticism had positive direct effects on intent to leave. Conclusions The results suggest that high compassion satisfaction levels may decrease intention to leave levels. Personality traits impact compassion satisfaction and intention to leave. Relevance to Clinical Practice Nursing professionals’ compassion satisfaction needs to be improved, for example by resilience training. As personality factors remain relatively stable over time, caregivers need to consider them when identifying appropriate areas of work and responsibility.

Psychosocial emergency care personnel form an important first responder subgroup, in which trained volunteers provide psychological first aid to accident and trauma survivors, their relatives, eye witnesses, bystanders and first responders themselves. This is the first longitudinal study to assess psychological burden due to secondary traumatisation and relevant resilience factors in psychosocial emergency care personnel. We asked 100 German psychosocial emergency care workers to assess their feeling of preparedness and resilience factors prior training. After training, when participants had worked emergency responses, we assessed secondary traumatisation. Overall, the level of secondary traumatisation was sub‐clinical (M = 37.50, SD = 5.35) after training and reported resilience factor levels were high. Three regression analyses were conducted to examine the moderation effect of preparedness on specific expertise (R² = 0.479, p < 0.001), performance competence (R² = 0.419, p = 0.002) and inner attitude (R² = 0.336, p = 0.002) in regard to the relationship between resilience factors and secondary traumatisation. Feeling prepared and competent for emergency responses were protective factors. Practical implications include the following: volunteers should not take part in emergency responses if they are under excessive stress; the volunteers' resilience factors should be taken into account; emergency response training should promote the feeling of preparedness in specific expertise and performance competence.

Psychosocial emergency care personnel provide voluntary psychological support directly after potentially traumatic events. During emergency responses, they experience challenging situations. However, previous quantitative studies suggest that the psychological burden of psychosocial emergency care personnel does not exceed that of the general population. This study aimed to obtain an in-depth analysis of the volunteers’ psychological reactions and resources regarding emergency responses. 36 psychosocial emergency care volunteers (12 pre-training, 12 post-training, 12 experienced) were invited to participate in semi-structured interviews. The volunteers were selected from previous cross-sectional and longitudinal studies on secondary traumatization in psychosocial emergency care volunteers. A qualitative content analysis of the transcribed interviews was performed following the principles of summary and inductive category development. We identified 845 codes which we summarized in three overarching categories: (I) reactions to emergency responses, (II) psychosocial emergency care work related resources and (III) experiences and changes in life perspective related to working in psychosocial emergency care. The volunteers described both emotional and physical reactions to emergency responses. While they perceived social support as a key coping resource and reported a greater appreciation of their own lives and their families due to their work, many volunteers also felt increased concern that something could happen to them. The volunteers’ reactions and symptoms are reasonable responses to stress and not indicative of serious impairment. Nevertheless, emergency responses are both emotionally and physically challenging. Volunteers should be carefully selected, receive regular supervision and determine the frequency of emergency responses.

Purpose: Multiple myeloma is a largely incurable disease. Patients suffer from the cancer, therapeutic side effects, and often psychological symptoms. Not only multiple myeloma patients but also patients with precursor diseases show high psychological distress. Today, treatment option evaluations are increasingly performed in combination with health-related quality of life (HRQoL) assessments. One factor that is positively associated with HRQoL is social support. Methods: Our recent study used questionnaires (EORTC QLQ-C30, EORTC QLQ-MY20, Illness-specific Social Support Scale) to investigate the influence of positive and negative aspects of social support on HRQoL in patients with multiple myeloma and its precursors. Results: Multiple linear regression analyses with sex, age, treatment line, hemoglobin level, and number of comorbidities as control variables show that positive social support had a significant beneficial association with emotional function (β = 0.323) and social function (β = 0.251). Detrimental interactions had a significant negative association with social function (β = − 0.209) and a significant positive association with side effects of treatment (β = 0.266). Conclusion: Therefore, screening for social support and, if needed, psycho-oncological care can be an important resource and should be implemented in routine care. Clinical trial registration: This study was registered with clinicaltrials.gov (NCT04328038).