Background: Cryptosporidium spp. are causative agents of gastrointestinal diseases in a wide variety of vertebrate hosts. Mortality resulting from the disease is low in livestock, although severe cryptosporidiosis has been associated with fatality in young animals. Methods: The goal of this systematic review and meta-analysis was to review the prevalence and molecular data on Cryptosporidium infections in selected terrestrial domestic and wild ungulates of the families Bovidae (bison, buffalo, cattle, goat, impala, mouflon sheep, sheep, yak), Cervidae (red deer, roe deer, white-tailed deer), Camelidae (alpaca, camel), Suidae (boar, pig), Giraffidae (giraffes) and Equidae (horses). Data collection was carried out using PubMed, Scopus, Science Direct and Cochran databases, with 429 papers being included in this systematic analysis. Results: The results show that overall 18.9% of ungulates from the investigated species were infected with Cryptosporidium spp. Considering livestock species (cattle, sheep, goats, pigs, horses and buffaloes), analysis revealed higher Cryptosporidium infection prevalence in ungulates of the Cetartiodactyla than in those of the Perissodactyla, with cattle (29%) being the most commonly infected farm animal. Conclusions: Overall, the investigated domestic ungulates are considered potential sources of Cryptosporidium contamination in the environment. Control measures should be developed to reduce the occurrence of Cryptosporidium infection in these animals. Furthermore, literature on wild populations of the named ungulate species revealed a widespread presence and potential reservoir function of wildlife.

Background: In recent years, decreasing annual rainfalls in some countries and population growth have led to a shortage of freshwater resources. Thus, recycled wastewaters has been suggested for agricultural activities. Contamination of wastewaters with pathogens is a major concern for the use of these waters. This study aimed to (i) investigate the occurrence of helminth eggs and protozoan (oo)cysts in human and livestock wastewaters, and (ii) evaluate the parasite removal efficiencies of urban and slaughterhouse treatment plants in Tehran province, Iran. One hundred and eight samples were collected from five urban and domestic wastewater treatment plants in Iran. Wastewater samples were concentrated by centrifugal-concentration and filtration methods. Results: The quantity of helminths egg and protozoa (oo)cyst per liter of urban raw wastewater ranged from 1.2 × 10¹ to 2.9 × 10¹ and from 9.6 × 10² to 1.9 × 10³, respectively. The number of eggs and (oo)cysts per liter of animal raw wastewater ranged from 1.6 × 10³ to 4.9 × 10³ and 3.1 × 10⁴ to 6.0 × 10⁴, respectively. The helminths and protozoa identified in urban treatment plants included hookworms, Hymenolepis and Rhabditis (or probably Strongyloides), Entamoeba, Isospora, Giardia, Chilomastix and Cryptosporidium, while in slaughterhouses Trichuris, Trichostrongylus, Moniezia, Dicrocoelium, Fasciola, Entamoeba, Cryptosporidium, Eimeria and Giardia were isolated. The overall removal efficiency of eggs and (oo)cysts in the treatment plants ranged from 94.8 to 95.7% and from 79.3 to 85.8%, respectively. Conclusion: The study results revealed that the efficacy of removal of nematode eggs, and not protozoan (oo)cysts, in urban wastewater treatment plants, is in compliance with the WHO parasitological guideline (<1 nematode per liter) required for unrestricted irrigation.

Background: Members of the Giardia genus are zoonotic protozoan parasites that cause giardiasis, a diarrheal disease of public and veterinary health concern, in a wide range of mammal hosts, including humans. Methodology: We conducted a systematic review and meta-analysis to provide evidence-based data on the worldwide prevalence of Giardia infection in nonhuman mammals that can be used as scientific foundation for further studies. We searched public databases using specific keywords to identify relevant publications from 1980 to 2023. We computed the pooled prevalence estimates utilizing a random-effects meta-analysis model. Animals were stratified according to their taxonomic hierarchy, as well as ecological and biological factors. We investigated the influence of predetermined variables on prevalence estimates and heterogeneity through subgroup and meta-regression analyses. We conducted phylogenetic analysis to examine the evolutionary relationships among different assemblages of G. duodenalis. Principal Findings: The study included 861 studies (1,632 datasets) involving 4,917,663 animals from 327 species, 203 genera, 67 families, and 14 orders from 89 countries. The global pooled prevalence of Giardia infection in nonhuman mammals was estimated at 13.6% (95% CI: 13.4–13.8), with the highest rates observed in Rodentia (28.0%) and Artiodactyla (17.0%). Herbivorous (17.0%), semiaquatic (29.0%), and wild (19.0%) animals showed higher prevalence rates. A decreasing prevalence trend was observed over time (β = -0.1036477, 95% CI -0.1557359 to -0.0515595, p < 0.000). Among 16,479 G. duodenalis isolates, 15,999 mono-infections belonging to eight (A-H) assemblages were identified. Assemblage E was the predominant genotype (53.7%), followed by assemblages A (18.1%), B (14.1%), D (6.4%), C (5.6%), F (1.4%), G (0.6%), and H (0.1%). The highest G. duodenalis genetic diversity was found in cattle (n = 7,651, where six assemblages including A (13.6%), B (3.1%), C (0.2%), D (0.1%), E (81.7%), and mixed infections (1.2%) were identified. Conclusions/significance: Domestic mammals are significant contributors to the environmental contamination with Giardia cysts, emphasizing the importance of implementing good management practices and appropriate control measures. The widespread presence of Giardia in wildlife suggests that free-living animals can potentially act as sources of the infection to livestock and even humans through overlapping of sylvatic and domestic transmission cycles of the parasite.

Gastrointestinal parasites (GIP) are a major cause of disease and production loss in livestock. Some have zoonotic potential, so production animals can be a source of human infections. We describe the prevalence of GIP in domestic mammals in Southeastern Iran. Fresh fecal samples (n = 200) collected from cattle (n = 88), sheep (n = 50), goats (n = 23), camels (n = 30), donkeys (n = 5), horse (n = 1), and dogs (n = 3) were subjected to conventional coprological examination for the detection of protozoan (oo)cysts and helminth ova. Overall, 83% (166/200) of the samples were positive for one or more GIP. Helminths were found in dogs, donkeys, sheep (42%), camels (37%), goats (30%), and cattle (19%), but not in the horse. Protozoa were found in cattle (82%), goats (78%), sheep (60%), and camels (13%), but not in donkeys, dogs, or the horse. Lambs were 3.5 times more likely to be infected by protozoa than sheep (OR = 3.5, 95% CI: 1.05–11.66), whereas sheep were at higher odds of being infected by helminths than lambs (OR = 4.09, 95% CI: 1.06–16.59). This is the first study assessing the prevalence of GIP in domestic mammals in Southeastern Iran.

Domestic animals can harbor a variety of enteric unicellular eukaryotic parasites (EUEP) with zoonotic potential that pose risks to human health. The aim of this study was to evaluate the occurrence and genetic diversity of EUEP of zoonotic relevance in domestic animals in Iran. Faecal samples were collected from cattle, sheep, camels, goats, donkeys, horse, and dogs. A real-time PCR was performed to detect the parasites, followed by sequence-based genotyping analyses on isolates that tested positive for Enterocytozoon bieneusi, Giardia duodenalis, and Blastocystis sp.. Overall, 53 out of 200 faecal samples (26.5%, 95% CI 20.5–33.2) were positive for one or more EUEP. Enterocytozoon bieneusi was found in 23.8%, 12.0%, 26.1%, and 13.3% of cattle, sheep, goats, and camels, respectively. Giardia duodenalis was identified in 19.3% of cattle and 6.7% of camels. Blastocystis sp. was detected in 5.7% of cattle and 16.7% of camels. Enterocytozoon bieneusi genotypes macaque1, J, BEB6, and CHG3 were identified in 3.7% (1/27), 3.7% (1/27), 44.4% (12/27), and 48.2% (13/27) of the isolates, respectively. Giardia duodenalis assemblage B and Blastocystis subtype 10 were identified in one cattle and one camel isolate, respectively. These findings suggest that domestic animals could serve as potential reservoirs for EUEP of zoonotic relevance and might play a significant role in transmitting these parasites to humans and other animals.