Neurological diseases contribute significantly to disability and mortality, necessitating improved diagnostic and prognostic tools. Advances in molecular biomarkers at genomic, transcriptomic, epigenomic, and proteomic levels have facilitated early disease detection. Notably, neurofilament light chain (NfL) serves as a key biomarker of neurodegeneration, while liquid biopsy techniques enable non-invasive monitoring through exosomal tau, α-synuclein, and inflammatory markers. Artificial intelligence (AI) and multi-omics integration further enhance biomarker discovery, promoting precision medicine. A comprehensive literature review was conducted using PubMed, Scopus, and Web of Science to identify studies (2010–2024) on molecular biomarkers in neurodegenerative and neuroinflammatory disorders. Key findings on genomic mutations, transcriptomic signatures, epigenetic modifications, and protein-based biomarkers were analyzed. The findings highlight the potential of liquid biopsy and multi-omics approaches in improving diagnostic accuracy and therapeutic stratification. Genomic, transcriptomic, and proteomic markers demonstrate utility in early detection and disease monitoring. AI-driven analysis enhances biomarker discovery and clinical application. Despite advancements, challenges remain in biomarker validation, standardization, and clinical implementation. Large-scale longitudinal studies are essential to ensure reliability. AI-powered multi-omics analysis may accelerate biomarker application, ultimately improving patient outcomes in neurological diseases.

Stroke is the third leading cause of death in the developed world and a major cause of chronic disability, especially among the elderly population. The major biomarkers of stroke which are the most promising for predicting onset time and independently differentiating ischemic from hemorrhagic and other stroke subtypes are at present limited to a few. This review aims to emphasize on the prognostic role of S100 calcium-binding protein b (S100B), and Glial Fibrillary Acidic Protein (GFAP) in patients with stroke. An electronic search of the published research from January 2000 to February 2024 was conducted using the MEDLINE, Scopus, and Cochrane databases. The implementation of S100B and GFAP in existing clinical scales and imaging modalities may be used to improve diagnostic accuracy and realize the potential of blood biomarkers in clinical practice. The reviewed studies highlight the potential of S100B and GFAP as significant biomarkers in the prognosis and diagnosis of patients with stroke and their ability of predicting long-term neurological deficits. They demonstrate high sensitivity and specificity in differentiating between ischemic and hemorrhagic stroke and they correlate well with stroke severity and outcomes. Several studies also emphasize on the early elevation of these biomarkers post-stroke onset, underscoring their value in early diagnosis and risk stratification. The ongoing research in this field should aim at improving patient outcomes and reducing stroke-related morbidity and mortality by developing a reliable, non-invasive diagnostic tool that can be easily implemented in several healthcare settings, with the ultimate goal of improving stroke management.

Helicobacter pylori has been classified as a class I carcinogen by WHO because of its primary involvement in the development of gastric cancer and mucosa-associated lymphoid tissue (MALT) lymphoma. This review focuses on understanding the molecular pathophysiological mechanisms that operate within intracellular transduction pathways and their relevance in the treatment strategies for the two main diseases caused by H. pylori. H. pylori virulence factors such as cytotoxin-associated gene A and vacuolating cytotoxin A genotypes, inflammatory mediators, H. pylori-induced microRNA deregulation, alterations in autophagy proteins and regulators, and changes in DNA methylation are some of the molecular mechanisms that play essential roles in H. pylori infection and gastric carcinogenesis. The discovery of novel treatment strategies that target the deregulated intracellular transduction pathways in gastric carcinogenesis and MALT lymphoma is critical. H. pylori eradication (HPE) is not limited to H. pylori-dependent low-grade MALT lymphoma and may be used in patients with high-grade diffuse large B-cell lymphoma (DLBCL) (de novo or DLBCL-MALT lymphoma). The loss of H. pylori dependency and high-grade transformation appear to be distinct events in the progression of gastric lymphoma. Interestingly, patients with H. pylori-positive gastric DLBCL without histological evidence of MALT lymphoma (pure gastric DLBCL) may respond to HPE therapy.

Background: Neurological diseases contribute significantly to disability and mortality, necessitating improved diagnostic and prognostic tools. Advances in molecular biomarkers at genomic, transcriptomic, epigenomic, and proteomic levels have facilitated early disease detection. Notably, neurofilament light chain (NfL) serves as a key biomarker of neurodegeneration, while liquid biopsy techniques enable non-invasive monitoring through exosomal tau, α-synuclein, and inflammatory markers. Artificial intelligence (AI) and multi-omics integration further enhance biomarker discovery, promoting precision medicine. Methods: A comprehensive literature review was conducted using PubMed, Scopus, and Web of Science to identify studies (2010–2024) on molecular biomarkers in neurodegenerative and neuroinflammatory disorders. Key findings on genomic mutations, transcriptomic signatures, epigenetic modifications, and protein-based biomarkers were analyzed. Results: Findings highlight the potential of liquid biopsy and multi-omics approaches in improving diagnostic accuracy and therapeutic stratification. Genomic, transcriptomic, and proteomic markers demonstrate utility in early detection and disease monitoring. AI-driven analysis enhances biomarker discovery and clinical application. Conclusion: Despite advancements, challenges remain in biomarker validation, standardization, and clinical implementation. Large-scale longitudinal studies are essential to ensure reliability. AI-powered multi-omics analysis may accelerate biomarker application, ultimately improving patient outcomes in neurological diseases.

Lung cancer is frequently complicated by coagulation abnormalities, primarily presenting as venous thromboembolism (VTE) but also including bleeding events in select patients. This hypercoagulable state arises from a multifaceted interplay between tumor-derived procoagulants, systemic inflammation, endothelial dysfunction, autoimmune mechanisms, and treatment-associated effects. These disruptions not only elevate thrombotic risk but also influence prognosis and therapeutic decisions. Furthermore, the presence of antiphospholipid antibodies or acquired coagulation inhibitors, such as lupus anticoagulant and anti-Factor VIII antibodies, poses a unique clinical challenge by increasing the risk of both thrombosis and hemorrhage. Recent data highlight the expanding role of tumor-derived extracellular vesicles, immune-mediated coagulopathies, and prothrombotic effects of immune checkpoint inhibitors in lung cancer–associated thrombosis. Novel biomarkers-such as prothrombin fragment 1 + 2, integrin β2– positive extracellular vesicles, and endothelial activation markers-are being investigated for risk stratification and personalized treatment decisions. Diagnostic approaches-including coagulation assays, biomarker profiling, and imaging-are discussed alongside emerging tools for individualized anticoagulation and management of acquired inhibitors. Early recognition and tailored management of cancer-associated coagulopathy are essential to improve patient outcomes. This review aims to provide practical insights for clinicians navigating the thrombohemorrhagic spectrum in lung cancer care.

The aim of this study was to measure the one-year total cost of strokes and to investigate the value of stroke care, defined as cost per QALY. The study population included 892 patients with first-ever acute strokes, hemorrhagic strokes, and ischemic strokes, (ICD-10 codes: I61, I63, and I64) admitted within 48 h of symptoms onset to nine public hospitals located in six cities. We conducted a bottom-up cost analysis from the societal point of view. All cost components including direct medical costs, productivity losses due to morbidity and mortality, and informal care costs were considered. We used an annual time horizon, including all costs for 2021, irrespective of the time of disease onset. The average cost (direct and indirect) was extrapolated in order to estimate the national annual burden associated with stroke. We estimated the total cost of stroke in Greece at EUR 343.1 mil. a year in 2021, (EUR 10,722/patient or EUR 23,308 per QALY). Out of EUR 343.1 mil., 53.3% (EUR 182.9 mil.) consisted of direct healthcare costs, representing 1.1% of current health expenditure in 2021. Overall, productivity losses were calculated at EUR 160.2 mil. The mean productivity losses were estimated to be 116 work days with 55.1 days lost due to premature retirement and absenteeism from work, 18.5 days lost due to mortality, and 42.4 days lost due to informal caregiving by family members. This study highlights the burden of stroke and underlines the need for stakeholders and policymakers to re-organize stroke care and promote interventions that have been proven cost-effective.