Breast cancer is the most frequent cancer among women worldwide. Biomarkers for early detection and prognosis of these patients are needed. We hypothesized that deafness, autosomal dominant 5 (DFNA5) may be a valuable biomarker, based upon strong indications for its role as tumor suppressor gene and its function in regulated cell death. In this study, we aimed to analyze DFNA5 methylation and expression in the largest breast cancer cohort to date using publicly available data from TCGA, in order to further unravel the role of DFNA5 as detection and/or prognostic marker in breast cancer. We analyzed Infinium HumanMethylation450k data, covering 22 different CpGs in the DFNA5 gene (668 breast adenocarcinomas and 85 normal breast samples) and DFNA5 expression (Agilent 244K Custom Gene Expression: 476 breast adenocarcinomas and 56 normal breast samples; RNA-sequencing: 666 breast adenocarcinomas and 71 normal breast samples). DFNA5 methylation and expression were significantly different between breast cancer and normal breast samples. Overall, breast cancer samples showed higher DFNA5 methylation in the putative gene promoter compared to normal breast samples, whereas in the gene body and upstream of the putative gene promoter, the opposite is true. Furthermore, DFNA5 methylation, in 10 out of 22 CpGs, and expression were significantly higher in lobular compared to ductal breast cancers. An important result of this study was the identification of a combination of one CpG in the gene promoter (CpG07504598) and one CpG in the gene body (CpG12922093) of DFNA5, which was able to discriminate between breast cancer and normal breast samples (AUC = 0.93). This model was externally validated in three independent datasets. Moreover, we showed that estrogen receptor state is associated with DFNA5 methylation and expression. Finally, we were able to find a significant effect of DFNA5 gene body methylation on a 5-year overall survival time. We conclude that DFNA5 methylation shows strong potential as detection and prognostic biomarker for breast cancer.

The human BON-1 and QGP-1 cell lines are two frequently used models in pancreatic neuroendocrine tumor (PNET) research. Data on the whole-exome genetic constitution of these cell lines is largely lacking. This study presents, to our knowledge, the first whole-exome profile of the BON-1 and QGP-1 cell lines. Cell line identity was confirmed by short tandem repeat profiling. Using GTG-banding and a CytoSNP-12v2 Beadchip array, cell line ploidy and chromosomal alterations were determined in BON-1 and QGP-1. The exomes of both cell lines were sequenced on Ilumina's HiSeq next-generation sequencing (NGS) platform. Single-nucleotide variants (SNVs) and insertions and deletions (indels) were detected using the Genome Analysis ToolKit. SNVs were validated by Sanger sequencing. Ploidy of BON-1 and QGP-1 was 3 and 4 respectively, with long stretches of loss of heterozygosity across multiple chromosomes, which is associated with aggressive tumor behavior. In BON-1, 57 frameshift indels and 1725 possible protein-altering SNVs were identified in the NGS data. In the QGP-1 cell line, 56 frameshift indels and 1095 SNVs were identified. ATRX, a PNET-associated gene, was mutated in both cell lines, while mutation of TSC2 was detected in BON-1. A mutation in NRAS was detected in BON-1, while KRAS was mutated in QGP-1, implicating aberrations in the RAS pathway in both cell lines. Homozygous mutations in TP53 with possible loss of function were identified in both cell lines. Various MUC genes, implicated in cell signaling, lubrication and chemical barriers, which are frequently expressed in PNET tissue samples, showed homozygous protein-altering SNVs in the BON-1 and QGP-1 cell lines.

Withaferin A (WA) isolated from Withania somnifera (Ashwagandha) has recently become an attractive phytochemical under investigation in various preclinical studies for treatment of different cancer types. In the present study, a comparative pathway-based transcriptome analysis was applied in epithelial-like MCF-7 and triple negative mesenchymal MDA-MB-231 breast cancer cells exposed to different concentrations of WA which can be detected systemically in in vivo experiments. Whereas WA treatment demonstrated attenuation of multiple cancer hallmarks, the withanolide analogue Withanone (WN) did not exert any of the described effects at comparable concentrations. Pathway enrichment analysis revealed that WA targets specific cancer processes related to cell death, cell cycle and proliferation, which could be functionally validated by flow cytometry and real-time cell proliferation assays. WA also strongly decreased MDA-MB-231 invasion as determined by single-cell collagen invasion assay. This was further supported by decreased gene expression of extracellular matrix-degrading proteases (uPA, PLAT, ADAM8), cell adhesion molecules (integrins, laminins), pro-inflammatory mediators of the metastasis-promoting tumor microenvironment (TNFSF12, IL6, ANGPTL2, CSF1R) and concomitant increased expression of the validated breast cancer metastasis suppressor gene (BRMS1). In line with the transcriptional changes, nanomolar concentrations of WA significantly decreased protein levels and corresponding activity of uPA in MDA-MB-231 cell supernatant, further supporting its anti-metastatic properties. Finally, hierarchical clustering analysis of 84 chromatin writer-reader-eraser enzymes revealed that WA treatment of invasive mesenchymal MDA-MB-231 cells reprogrammed their transcription levels more similarly towards the pattern observed in non-invasive MCF-7 cells. In conclusion, taking into account that sub-cytotoxic concentrations of WA target multiple metastatic effectors in therapy-resistant triple negative breast cancer, WA-based therapeutic strategies targeting the uPA pathway hold promise for further (pre)clinical development to defeat aggressive metastatic breast cancer.