One hundred twelve crossbred feedlot heifers were used in two experiments to assess the impact of heat stress and its relief by shade and(or) water misting on behavior, physiology, performance, and carcass traits. Treatments were 1) no shading or misting (CONT); 2) only misting (MIST); 3) only shading (SHADE); and 4) shading plus misting (SHMI). Head in the feed bunk, head in or above the waterer, walking, standing, and lying behaviors were observed. Rectal temperature, respiration rate, and carcass traits were measured, as well as DMI, ADG, and feed:gain. Dietary NE_m and NE_g concentrations were calculated from performance data. In Exp. 1, (32 heifers; average BW 288 kg) the CONT heifers spent more time lying down than all others (P < 0.01). In addition, CONT heifers spent less time (P < 0.01) standing than SHADE and MIST heifers. Misting decreased (P < 0.01) rectal temperature and MIST as well as SHADE lowered (P < 0.05) respiration rates. In Exp. 2 (80 heifers; average BW = 336 kg), lying and walking behaviors did not differ among treatments, but shade increased (P < 0.01) standing behavior in heifers. The MIST cattle performed less (P < 0.05) head-above-water behavior than unmisted cattle. Rectal temperatures did not differ among treatments, but respiration rate was lower in shaded than in unshaded heifers (P < 0.05). Shaded compared with unshaded heifers had greater DMI (9.46 vs 8.80 ± 0.14 kg/d, P < 0.01) and ADG (1.6 vs 1.41 ± 0.1 kg/d, P < 0.01). Heifers provided with shade reached their target BW 20 d earlier than the unshaded heifers and differed in final BW (547 vs 520 ± 6 kg, P < 0.01). Feed:gain and calculated NE_g and NE_m concentrations did not differ among treatments, and carcass traits were generally similar among treatments. In conclusion, cattle without shade had a physiological and behavioral stress response to heat that negatively affected productivity. Providing shade for beef cattle was a suitable solution to decrease heat stress and to lower the negative effects of heat on performance, whereas misting was largely ineffective.

Continuous observations are an accurate method for behavioral measurements but are difficult to conduct on large numbers of animals because of extensive labor requirements. Thus, we sought to develop methods of behavioral data collection in feedlot cattle production systems that reasonably approximated continuous sampling. Standing, lying, feeding, drinking, and walking behaviors were examined from 224 h of continuous video from 64 heifers. Experiment 1 (n = 24 heifers) compared continuous behavioral sampling techniques (Continuous) with scan sampling using intervals of 1, 5, 10, 15, 30, and 60 min and time sampling (a technique for the periodic recording of behavior) for the first 10 min out of every 60 min. Means for each scan sampling method did not differ in estimated percentage of duration of behaviors (P > 0.05) from continuous sampling, except for scan sampling with a 60-min interval. Scan sampling with a 60-min interval differed from more frequent scan sampling intervals for all behaviors except lying. Scan sampling with short intervals (1 and 5 min) was correlated highly with Continuous for all behaviors. The longer the scan interval, the lower the correlations, especially for behaviors with short duration. Time sampling was not an accurate technique for measuring the sampled behaviors. Focal animal sampling (using continuous sampling of individuals) indicated that one heifer was representative of the entire pen of 10 animals (Continuous) for all maintenance behaviors except drinking. Scan sampling methods (1-, 5-, 10-, and 15-min intervals) were accurate methods of behavioral sampling for feedlot cattle, but scan intervals of 30 or 60 min were less accurate and less precise. Time sampling was not an accurate method because it overestimated standing and underestimated lying behaviors. Experiment 2 (n = 40 heifers) investigated the number of focal animals required to accurately represent continuous behavioral sampling for all animals. Focal animal sampling was accurate for most behaviors using as few as 1 animal out of 10 but was not an accurate method for drinking behavior unless 40% of the animals in the pen were observed. Estimates of sample sizes needed for experimental protocols are provided. Behavioral means, standard deviations, and coefficients of variation are presented along with estimates of required sample sizes. These results validate accurate, precise, and efficient methods for quantifying feedlot cattle behavior.

Among land animals, more pork is eaten in the world than any other meat. The earth holds about one billion pigs who deliver over 100 mmt of pork to people for consumption. Systems of pork production changed from a forest-based to pasture-based to dirt lots and finally into specially-designed buildings. The world pork industry is variable and complex not just in production methods but in economics and cultural value. A systematic analysis of pork industry sustainability was performed. Sustainable production methods are considered at three levels using three examples in this paper: production system, penning system and for a production practice. A sustainability matrix was provided for each example. In a comparison of indoor vs. outdoor systems, the food safety/zoonoses concerns make current outdoor systems unsustainable. The choice of keeping pregnant sows in group pens or individual crates is complex in that the outcome of a sustainability assessment leads to the conclusion that group penning is more sustainable in the EU and certain USA states, but the individual crate is currently more sustainable in other USA states, Asia and Latin America. A comparison of conventional physical castration with immunological castration shows that the less-common immunological castration method is more sustainable (for a number of reasons). This paper provides a method to assess the sustainability of production systems and practices that take into account the best available science, human perception and culture, animal welfare, the environment, food safety, worker health and safety, and economics (including the cost of production and solving world hunger). This tool can be used in countries and regions where the table values of a sustainability matrix change based on local conditions. The sustainability matrix can be used to assess current systems and predict improved systems of the future.

Effects of pig birth (first 3-wk period) and rearing environments on growth and muscle quality characteristics of loins were evaluated in three experiments over seasons in west Texas and central Missouri. Housing systems included indoor slatted-floor buildings, indoor deep-bedded buildings, outdoor housing on dirt, and outdoor housing on alfalfa pasture. Experiments were conducted during the growing/finishing phases and pigs were slaughtered at the same age. Loins were collected, vacuum-packaged, and stored for 14 d at 2°C. Pigs born and finished in an outdoor environment during the summer months (Exp. 1) had a greater ADG (0.92 vs 0.82 ± 0.06 kg/d, P < 0.05) and had heavier carcass weights (87.9 vs 78.4 ± 2.4 kg, P < 0.05) than pigs born and finished in an indoor environment with a slatted-floor finishing building. Carcasses from the outdoor-reared group measured a larger (P < 0.05) loineye area and were fatter (P < 0.01) at the first rib, last rib, and last lumbar vertebra measurements than carcasses from the indoor-reared group. Loin chops from outdoor-reared pigs had darker color scores in the retail display case throughout the 4-d period, measured lower L* values on d 1, and had more discoloration and browning on d 4 than loin chops from the indoor-reared group. During the winter months (Exp. 2), no difference was detected in ADG, carcass measurements, sensory characteristics, or shear force values from indoor-born pigs placed in either an outdoor or indoor finishing environment. Pigs finished on deep bedding (Exp. 3) had heavier carcass weights and more backfat (P < 0.01) than pigs finished on slats, but no differences were detected in sensory panel or shear force results. Overall, carcass measurements, pH, drip loss, sensory panel, and shear force values were similar among the groups finished in different housing systems. Outdoor or deep-bedded systems may increase growth rates of pigs if suitable land area and resources are available, but pork quality of loins will be similar for pigs finished in either conventional or alternative systems.

Two hundred eighty-seven lactating Newsham sows and their litters were used to determine the effects of intensive indoor (n = 147) and intensive outdoor (n = 140) production systems on sow and litter productivity and behavior. All sows were of contemporary age and fed a completely balanced sorghum-based diet. Behavior data were collected by live observation on 40 sows and litters (20 indoor and 20 outdoor) using a 5-min scan sample over a 4-h period in the afternoon (1400 to 1800). The durations of lying (90.0 vs 72.1 ± 2.76% of time observed) and drinking (4.42 vs 1.41 ± 0.6% of time observed) were higher (P < 0.01) among indoor than among outdoor lactating sows. Nursing interval and feeding and sitting behaviors were not different (P > 0.05) between production systems. Piglets spent more (P < 0.05) time walking (10.1 vs 5.2 ± 1.72% of time observed) and engaged in play activity (5.0 vs 1.7 ± 1.26% of time observed) when housed outdoors than indoors. Outdoor piglets had more (P < 0.05) nursing behaviors directed toward the sow (27.5 vs 20.3 ± 2.02% of time observed) but time spent in contact with the sow did not differ between environments (38.8 vs 39.2 ± 2.78% of time observed). Treatments did not influence (P > 0.05) any of the sow or piglet production parameters. In conclusion, outdoor-kept Newsham sows and their piglets showed a richer behavioral repertoire, but the diverse environments did not influence production parameters.