Earthworms are a major component of soil fauna communities. They influence soil chemical, biological, and physical processes and vice versa, their abundance and diversity are influenced by natural characteristics or land management practices. There is need to establish their characteristics and relations. In this study earthworm density (ED), body biomass (EB), and diversity in relation to land use (arable land—AL, permanent grasslands—PG), management, and selected abiotic (soil chemical, physical, climate related) and biotic (arthropod density and biomass, ground beetle density, carabid density) indicators were analysed at seven different study sites in Slovakia. On average, the density of earthworms was nearly twice as high in PG compared to AL. Among five soil types used as arable land, Fluvisols created the most suitable conditions for earthworm abundance and biomass. We recorded a significant correlation between ED, EB and soil moisture in arable land. In permanent grasslands, the main climate related factor was soil temperature. Relationships between earthworms and some chemical properties (pH, available nutrients) were observed only in arable land. Our findings indicate trophic interaction between earthworms and carabids in organically managed arable land. Comprehensive assessment of observed relationships can help in earthworm management to achieve sustainable agricultural systems.

Sustainable agricultural soil management practices are key to restore, maintain and improve soil health. The European Joint Programme for SOIL (EJP SOIL) has identified twelve main soil challenges in Europe. To assess the potential and eventually increase the adoption of soil‐improving management practices, it is necessary to know (i) the current levels of adoption of the practices, (ii) socio‐technical barriers influencing their adoption, and (iii) their bio‐physical limits. This study compiled an inventory of soil‐improving management practices relevant to European conditions, and used a survey among soil scientists to assess the levels of adoption of these practices in Europe. In total, 53 soil management practices were identified that address one or several of the soil challenges. The adoption of most practices was low or spatially heterogeneous across Europe, highlighting region‐specific limitations to sustainable soil management. Qualitative interviews were conducted to explore the importance of socio‐technical aspects of adoption. Using conservation agriculture as an example, factors that can hinder adoption included the availability of knowledge and adequate machinery, financial risks, and farming traditions. Through a modelling approach, 54% of arable land in Europe was found to be suitable for cover cropping, indicating that the adoption of soil management practices is frequently limited by climatic constraints. We propose a region‐specific approach that recognizes the importance of identifying and overcoming socio‐technical barriers, and by acknowledging bio‐physical limits that may be expanded by innovation.

Throughout Europe, grasslands are managed primarily for agricultural production but also provide a range of ecosystem services, the magnitude of which is influenced by their area, management and the abiotic properties of the ecosystem. The grassland area in Europe has been affected by significant changes in recent decades, including abandonment and conversion to arable land. This study presents an assessment of changes in the permanent grassland area with reference to Slovakia and provides an assessment of the bioenergy potential of permanent grassland surplus to agricultural needs. In 2015, of the total permanent grassland area (868,000 ha) 42% had ceased to be used as feed for milk or meat production and had been abandoned. Results from field experiments show that low‐level improvement of permanent grasslands, e.g., by oversowing commonly sown agricultural grassland species and low‐dose fertilization (up to 30 kg N ha⁻¹ year⁻¹) could provide herbage biomass of 1.7 million tonnes of herbage dry matter per year. This would be sufficient to generate an energy output of approximately 31.3–31.9 PJ/year (4.5% of the current gross inland energy consumption of Slovakia). Low‐intensity use of the currently surplus permanent grassland is also considered to have potential beneficial outcomes in terms of delivery of ecosystem services. Results are also discussed in the context of countries beyond the case‐study area.

Erosion is a process often driven by land management deteriorating or changing soil properties along the slopes, with consequences on ecosystem services. In a model area with Stagnic Cambisol, with two different types of land use (grassland—GL and arable land—AL), on an erosion transect in three different hillslope positions (upper, middle, and lower), in two different depths (0–10 and 35–45 cm), we observed the impact of soil erosion on soil and plant properties and ecosystem services by use of direct measurements and models. In GL, soil available potassium (SK), soil available phosphorus (SP) and pH increased both downward along the slope and in soil depth. A significantly (p < 0.01) higher content of plant nutrients (PN, PP, and PK) and shoot biomass was recorded in the lower part of the hillslope. In AL, soil parameters (pH, SOC, SN, and SOC/SN) reached the lowest values at the middle hillslope position at the shallowest depth. A relatively negligible annual average soil loss was recorded for GL (0.76 t/ha/yr). To the contrary, a very high rate of soil erosion was found for AL with maize silage. The actual soil moisture was 50% higher in GL compared to AL, which was reflected also in the soil water deficit index (SWDI) being more favorable for GL.

Water retention is an important hydrological ecosystem service of active floodplain soils. The aim of the study was to evaluate the soil chemical, physical, and hydrological properties in Fluvisols in three different ecosystems that have an impact on water retention hydrological ecosystem services (WRHESs). We selected 16 localities along the Štiavnica River in Central Slovakia, 8 located in riparian zones (RZ), 5 in arable lands (AL), and 3 in grasslands (GL). Soil samples were collected from two layers (0–10 and 20–30 cm). In the laboratory, the soil physical (soil texture) and soil chemical properties (pH, soil organic carbon content, humic and fulvic acid ratio) were determined. Using undisturbed soil samples, the soil physical characteristics (particle density, bulk density, porosity, and actual soil moisture–SMa) were measured. With the help of pedotransfer functions, hydrological soil properties (field water capacity–FWC, wilting point–WP, available water capacity–AWC) were estimated. The recorded properties differed between the localities, ecosystems, and two layers. The SMa values showed a higher soil water retention potential of extensively used ecosystems, such as GL and RZ. However, the hydrological properties estimated by pedotransfer functions (FWC, WP, AWC) showed a higher soil water retention potential in AL localities. This indicated that for calculations, selected pedotransfer functions (particle size fractions, organic matter, and bulk density) and other soil or ecosystem properties (e.g., vegetation cover, meteorological conditions) have an impact on WRHESs. One such soil factor can be the quality of organic matter. On the basis of the results of the ANOVA, significant differences emerged between the different ecosystems for selected basic chemical, physical, and hydrological properties. The effect of the soil layer on the soil properties was revealed only in the case of SOC. The results indicated the effect of different ecosystems on soil WRHES and the importance of extensively managed ecosystems, such as RZ and GL. From this point of view, the reduction in the RZ and GL areas during a period of the last 70 years is negative. The findings should be taken into account in future sustainable floodplain management and landscape architecture.

Grasslands intensification by use of mineral fertilization has contributed substantially to the increase in forage production. Intensification, however, can degrade the other beneficial functions or soil properties. The effects of mineral fertilization on soil and plant chemical qualities of a permanent wet grassland (Festucetum pratense association) were investigated in Slovakia. The grassland was treated using 3 different N, P, and K rates of mineral fertilizers in kg. ha⁻¹. yr⁻¹ plus the Control (0NPK) almost over 60-year period (1961–2017). The N, P, and K rates in low NPK treatment (LNPK) were N50, P15.4, and K 41.5, in the medium NPK treatment (MNPK) were N100, P30.8, and K83, and in the high NPK treatment (HNPK) were N200, P 61.6, and K 166, respectively. Overall, soil variables (pH, soil organic carbon, plant-available K) showed the most significant changes. A more balanced development was observed in case of soil total nitrogen, C:N ratio, and plant-available P. ANOVA revealed a significant effect between treatments only on plant-available P. In the case of plant functional group development, long-term mineral addition significantly disfavors legumes and forbs. However, analyses of the botanical composition over the last 5 years showed that legume cover significantly differs only in the HNPK treatment. Plant C:P, N:P, and N:K ratios were significantly reduced when fertilizers were added. In terms of grasslands yields, the highest biomass and content of macronutrients were obtained under the HNPK rates. However, with regard to the quality and quantity of the soil organic matter, the most appropriate treatment has been with the MNPK rates. Our findings demonstrate that medium fertilization seems to be an acceptable compromise to meet both productivity and environmental aspects and to connect ecological benefits with social benefits in the long term.