LCA is a popular tool widely used to assess the environmental impact of waste management systems, which is illustrated by the substantial number of LCA computer models specifically addressing this subject. Due to the complex nature of waste management modelling and the range of country-specific data, as well as lack of harmonization, it has been observed that there are large discrepancies between the results using different models. Many studies have underlined the necessity of clearly identifying both the scope and methodological assumptions of LCAs in order to have confidence in the results. Therefore, the paper presented here reveals several methodology-related issues. The study tests two different pieces of LCA software, i.e. IWM-2 (designed specifically for MSW) and SimaPro (a generic and widely used LCA software). The pieces of software were used to LCA an MSW scenario and the results obtained (calculated using Ecoindicator’99 H/A) were compared to show the strengths and weaknesses of these tools, i.e., generic software usually treats the waste as a set of separate fractions, not as a whole mass, which means that the software is not highly sensitive to the composition of the waste and does not take into account the environmental impacts produced as a result of the interaction between the waste components after mixing. As waste composition is very important in planning, one study combines these two software packages to get final results, i.e., data generated by IWM-2 were entered into SimaPro. The discussion is built around a case study in Poland where waste management scenarios have been analyzed. The research carried out has shown that having the same initial inventory data collected on the basis of the same assumptions and with the same boundaries to the system model used and using the same method of LCIA to assess the impact on the environment, may not produce the same end results. In the presented study, the main differences in the LCIA results appeared in four output-related impact categories: carcinogens, climate change, ecotoxicity, and eutrophication/acidification, and for one input related impact category – fossil fuels. Four reasons responsible for these differences are identified: (1) The IWM-2 program identified a smaller number of substances emitted to air and water associated with landfill and recycling than the Ecoinvent database (IWM-2 identified a total of 31 types of emissions to air and water for landfill while Ecoinvent identified 405 types, IWM-2 identified 39 types of emissions for recycling while Ecoinvent identified 403 types) (2) The IWM-2 program did not cover emissions to the soil, while the Ecoinvent database identified 60 types of such impact for landfill and 58 for recycling (3) The IWM-2 program does not cover consumption of resources, while the Ecoinvent database covered the use of 198 kinds of raw material (including 100 different minerals and fossil fuels) (4) In each case a different total mass of emissions and resources consumed was identified in the analysis of the inventory included in both analyses.

The paper presents, for the first time, a life cycle assessment (LCA) study of energy generation (i.e. electricity and heat production) in Poland. The aim is to determine and compare the potential impact of energy generation upon the environment in 2007, 2010 and 2012 based on country-specific data bought from specialised government agencies. LCA evaluations were made using the Impact2002+ method, which proposes a feasible implementation of a combined midpoint/damage approach. The method was chosen because it models risks and potential impacts per emission for several thousand chemicals, including greenhouse gas (GHG). The LCA method was used to monitor and assess the current energy system and introduced changes in energy structure at national level. From the environmental perspective, the main problem of the Polish energy sector is that it is mainly based on fossil energy carriers, i.e. hard and brown coal (over 80 %). As the share of renewables in primary energy has increased from 6.7 to 10.2 % (mainly biomass), a reduction in SO₂, NO_x and dust was noted in 2010 in comparison to 2007. Unfortunately, acid and CO₂ emissions increased significantly in 2012 as a result of higher consumption of brown coal as a fuel for energy production. The LCA study shows that the total environmental impact of the production and distribution of 1 TJ of energy increased by about 4 % in 2010 (compared to 2007) and by about 11 % in 2012 (compared to 2010). Specific representative data of high quality can be delivered by agencies focused on energy issues and the national statistical office. They can help to considerably reduce the time and costs of life cycle inventory (LCI). These data, including a classification relating to electricity and heat generation and distribution in Poland, were converted to LCA results for the first time. It was noted that allocation between heat and power in the CHP system can be recognised as a source of uncertainty, and the results should be interpreted as sensitive to change in the allocation criteria.

Construction, as a sector of the economy, is a significant source of negative environmental impacts. The development of sustainable construction and associated initiatives are meant to reduce that impact. Buildings, for many reasons, are the complex objects of life cycle assessment (LCA) studies, which in this case can be particularly time-, data- and cost-consuming. Therefore, an attempt was made to explore the possibility of finding a methodological compromise between a full LCA and the compulsory energy certification. Six methodological variants, so called compromise solutions (CS) were identified and assessed. This article presents the results of the research project financed by the Polish Ministry of Science and Higher Education (N N309 078138) and coordinated by the Wood Technology Institute in Poznan. The proposed CS were hybrids utilising, to various degrees, the environmental life cycle assessment (LCA) and energy certification. Life cycle impact assessments were carried out using IMPACT 2002+. The achieved results showed that the simplifications included in the energy certification lead to a significant drop in environmental impacts (by 77.9 % on average) in relation to the impact calculated for the full LCA. The results closest to the full LCA were achieved by the compromise solution no. 4 (CS4), where simplification included the exclusion from the life cycle of: transport processes, construction site, demolition, final disposal of waste, and the majority of elements associated with the use of the building. CS4 analysed all inventory inputs which were assessed with regard to the entire environmental profile. The following truncation levels were achieved for CS4—10.7 % (conventional masonry building), 9.9 % (passive masonry building), 8.3 % (conventional wooden building) and 7.4 % (passive wooden building), indicating that 90 % of the impact calculated for the full LCA was retained. CS4 seems to be a rational compromise between the simplicity of the methodology and the environmental significance. With the exception of the energy usage for heating, hot water and ventilation, CS4 also proposes including, in the analysis, the production of building material and additional elements associated with the use stage, e.g. energy usage for home appliances and lighting, land occupation, water use and wastewater treatment. However, if we were to find a rational minimum, which is close to the energy certification, then a good improvement of this methodology would be to include energy usage for home appliances and lighting as well as introducing conversion indicators, based not only on the depletion of energy resources, but also factoring in global warming and respiratory effects/inorganic compounds. Moreover, it seems that the LCA methodology and, specifically, characterisation factors, are refined to such a degree and scientifically proved that it would be possible to use the knowledge with regard to LCA to establish such indicators for energy certification.

Circular Economy in the European Union: Organisational Practice and Future Directions in Germany, Poland and Spain presents the EU's journey towards a circular economy (CE), identifying significant organisational practices in this gradually adopted field among member countries. The book also aims to develop and propose innovative initiatives and practices for implementing CE across various economic sectors in selected EU countries, such as Poland, Spain and Germany. Covering topics which include the implementation of CE in the EU and worldwide, green employee behaviors, corporate social responsibility in creating pro-environmental attitudes and models of eco-digital factory transformation in SMEs, the book emphasises the importance of innovative, environmentally friendly, low-waste, and low-emission technologies. Consisting of thirteen interconnected chapters, it discusses the challenges and opportunities of CE, the importance of business engagement in addressing social and environmental problems, and provides practical examples of innovative solutions in various sectors. This volume will be of great interest to students and scholars of circular economy, corporate governance, business ethics and sustainable business, as well as entrepreneurs, managers, government representatives, and non-governmental organisations active in CE. <!----> <!----> <!----> <!---->

The circular economy (CE) poses major challenges to the citizens of European countries. Proper waste management is a priority here. Poland is one of the countries that has been trying for many years to meet the requirements to achieve an appropriate level of recovery as well as the recycling of municipal and packaging waste. In order to achieve appropriate levels of packaging waste recycling, it was planned to implement an otherwise refundable deposit system starting in January 2023. Currently, work is still underway to implement this system starting in January 2025. The aim of the study is to describe the current work of the ministry, entrepreneurs and recovery organizations in this area and, on this basis, to indicate the barriers and uncertainties encountered in the implementation of this system. The authors want to answer the question of what barriers and benefits can be expected after the implementation of the deposit system. The implementation of the system has been postponed many times (for several years). The current involvement of various organizations (large cities, chain stores and recovery organizations) indicates that the system will be implemented on 1 January 2025. Based on the example of other EU countries, what estimated benefits can be expected after implementing the system in Poland? An extensive literature review and survey research indicate that Polish society views the deposit system favorably and Poland is ready to implement it. Specific regulations from the Minister of Climate and Environment need to be implemented as well as special machine need to be put in stores to start the deposit system. Examples of ongoing efforts to create appropriate infrastructure also show that Poland is on track to join the deposit system from January 2025. The deposit system will be continuously improved and expanded with more packages. Currently, it is planned to be introduced only for selected packages.

Ecological innovations (eco-innovations) can be considered from the standpoint of innovations implemented within the company in order to: improve organizational and management methods, production process, products, marketing, external relations with the environment and society. They are also a chance for professional development (the so-called green jobs) or can be viewed in terms of consumer interest. Consumer interest in ecoinnovations, and subsequently growth in sales of products and services, influence the effectiveness of innovations and worthiness of their further funding. Eco-innovations, however, are not limited only to the company and the services, but also the quality of life and environment protection, inevitably followed by the present and future sustainable development. In the paper all the above has been presented with GUS, PARP, UE and the Division of Environment and Public Sector Economy Management (University of Zielona Góra) studies. The research involved eco-innovations in companies and indicated the directions and obstacles of their implementation in Poland.