With the phase-out of stavudine (d4T), change to first-line regimens with zidovudine (AZT) or tenofovir (TDF) in resource-limited settings (RLS) might increase risks of cross-resistance to nucleos(t) ide reverse transcriptase inhibitors (NRTI). This would restrict the scope of switching to the World Health Organisation (WHO)-recommended standard second-line combinations (SLC) without HIV drug resistance (HIVDR)-testing in routine clinical practice. An observational study was conducted among 101 Cameroonian patients (55.4% male, median [IQR] age 34 [10–41] years) failing first-line antiretroviral therapy (ART) in 2016, and stratified into three groups according to NRTIs exposure: exposure to both thymidine analogues AZT “and” D4T (group-A, n = 55); exposure to both TDF and AZT “or” D4T (group-B, n = 22); exposure solely to D4T (group-C, n = 24). Protease-reverse transcriptase HIVDR was interpreted using the HIVdb penalty scores (≥60: high-resistance; 20–59: intermediate-resistance; < 20: susceptible). The acceptable threshold for potential-efficacy was set at 80%. The median [IQR] CD4, viral RNA, and time on ART, were respectively 129 [29–466] cells/μl, 71,630 [19,041-368,000] copies/ml, and 4 [2–5] years. Overall HIVDR-level was 89.11% (90/101), with 83.2% harbouring M184 V (high-level 3TC/FTC-resistance) and only 1.98% (2/101) major HIVDR-mutations to ritonavir-boosted protease-inhibitors (PI/r). Thymidine-analogue mutations (TAMs)-1 [T215FY (46.53%), M41 L (22.77%), L210 W (8.91%)], with cross-resistance to AZT and TDF, were higher compared to TAMs-2 [D67N (21.78%), K70R (19.80%), K219QE (18.81%)]. As expected, K65R was related with TDF-exposure: 0% (0/55) in group-A, 22.72% (5/22) group-B, 4.17% (1/24) group-C (p = 0.0013). The potential-efficacy of AZT vs. TDF was respectively 43.64% (24/55) vs. 70.91% (39/55) in group-A (p = 0.0038); 63.64% (14/22) vs. 68.28% (15/22) in group-B (p = 1.0000); and 37.50% (9/24) vs. 83.33% (20/24) in group-C (p = 0.0032). CRF02_AG was the prevailing subtype (63.40%), followed by CRF11.cpx (8.91%), A1 (7.92%), G (5.94%); without any significant effect of the subtype-distribution on HIVDR (92.2% in CRF02_AG vs. 83.8% in non-AG; p = 0.204). First-line ART-failure exhibits high-level NRTI-resistance, with potential lower-efficacy of AZT compared to TDF. Significantly, using our 80% efficacy-threshold, only patients without NRTI-substitution on first-line could effectively switch to SLC following the WHO-approach. Patients with multiple NRTI-substitutions (exposed to both thymidine-analogues and TDF) on first-line ART would require HIVDR-testing to select active NRTIs for SLC.

Objective: Thrombocytopenia is an abnormal decrease in blood platelets, which can affect the prognosis of people living with HIV (PLHIV). In order to assess the burden of this haematological disorder, we evaluated the frequency of thrombocytopenia according to antiretroviral drug combinations, viremia and the immune status of PLHIV. Results: A cross-sectional and analytical study was conducted from June to November 2016 among 310 PLHIV at the “Chantal BIYA” International Reference Centre, Yaoundé, Cameroon. Overall rate of thrombocytopenia was 19.0% (59/310). The rate of thrombocytopenia was 64.6% (42/65) versus 6.9% (17/245) in ART-naïve versus ART-treated patients respectively, p < 0.0001. Following viral load, rate of thrombocytopenia was 15.8% (20/130) in those with undetectable viral load, and 34.1% (27/79) with viral loads > 3 log₁₀ RNA/ml (p = 0.03). As concerns CD4-count, rate of thrombocytopenia was 16.2% (42/259) in those with ≥ 200 CD4/mm³ versus 33.3% (17/51) with < 200 CD4/mm³ (p = 0.0003). After adjusting for sex, ART, viral load and CD4, Viral load and ART exposure were significantly associated with decreased risk of thrombocytopenia (p < 0.05). Thrombocytopenia occurs especially among ART-naïve, high viremia and severe immune-compromised patients. Interestingly, ART coverage appears as an independent factor in preventing the occurrence of thrombocytopenia.

HIV infection has commonly been found to affect lipid profile and antioxidant defense. To determine the effects of Human Immunodeficiency Virus (HIV) infection and viral subtype on patient’s cholesterol and oxidative stress markers, and determine whether in the absence of Highly Active Antiretroviral Therapy (HAART), these biochemical parameters could be useful in patient’s management and monitoring disease progression in Cameroon. For this purpose, we measured total cholesterol (TC), LDL cholesterol (LDLC), HDL cholesterol (HDLC), total antioxidant ability (TAA), lipid peroxidation indices (LPI), and malondialdehyde (MDA) in HIV negative persons and HIV positive HAART-naïve patients infected with HIV-1 group M subtypes. We measured serum TC, LDLC, HDLC, plasma MDA, and TAA concentrations, and calculated LPI indices in 151 HIV-positive HAART-naïve patients and 134 seronegative controls. We also performed gene sequence analysis on samples from 30 patients to determine the effect of viral genotypes on these biochemical parameters. We also determined the correlation between CD4 cell count and the above biochemical parameters. We obtained the following controls/patients values for TC (1.96±0.54/1. 12±0. 48 g/l), LDLC (0. 67±0. 46/0. 43±0. 36 g/l), HDLC (105. 51±28. 10/46. 54±23. 36 mg/dl) TAA (0. 63±0. 17/0. 16±0. 16 mM), MDA (0. 20±0. 07/0. 41±0. 10 µM) and LPI (0. 34±0. 14/26. 02±74. 40). In each case, the difference between the controls and patients was statistically significant (p<0.05). There was a positive and statistically significant Pearson correlation between CD4 cell count and HDLC (r = +0.272; p<0.01), TAA (r = +0.199; p<0.05) and a negative and statistically significant Pearson correlation between CD4 cell count and LPI (r = −0.166; p<0.05). Pearson correlation between CD4 cell count and TC, CD4cell count and LDLC was positive but not statistically significant while it was negative but not statistically significant with MDA. The different subtypes obtained after sequencing were CRF02_AG (43.3%), CRF01_AE (20%), A1 (23.3%), H (6.7%), and G (6.7%). None of the HIV-1 subtypes significantly influenced the levels of the biochemical parameters, but by grouping them as pure subtypes and circulating recombinant forms (CRFs), the CRF significantly influenced TC levels. TC was significantly lower in patients infected with CRF (0.87±0.27 g/l) compared to patients infected with pure HIV-1 subtypes (1.32±0.68 g/l) (p<0.017). MDA levels were also significantly higher in patients infected with HIV-1CRF01_AE (0.50±0.10 µM), compared to patients infected with CRF02_AG (0. 38±0. 08 µM) (p<0.018). These results show that HIV infection in Cameroon is associated with significant decrease in TAA, LDLC, HDLC and TC, and increased MDA concentration and LPI indices which seem to be linked to the severity of HIV infection as assessed by CD4 cell count. The data suggests increased oxidative stress and lipid peroxidation in HIV-infected patients in Cameroon, and an influence of CRFs on TC and MDA levels.

The efficacy of first-line antiretroviral therapy (ART) may be hampered by the presence of HIV drug resistance (HIVDR). We described HIV-1 pre-treatment drug resistance (PDR) patterns, effect of viral clades on PDR, and programmatic implications on first-line regimens in Cameroon. A sentinel surveillance of PDR was conducted from 2014 to 2019. Sequencing of HIV-1 protease and reverse transcriptase was performed, and HIVDR was interpreted using Stanford HIVdb.v.9.4. In total, 379 sequences were obtained from participants (62% female, mean age 36 ± 10 years). The overall PDR rate was 15.0% [95% CI: 11.8–19.0] nationwide, with significant disparity between regions (p = 0.03). NNRTI PDR was highest (12.4%), of which 7.9% had DRMs to EFV/NVP. Two regions had EFV/NVP PDR above the 10% critical threshold, namely the Far North (15%) and East (10.9%). Eighteen viral strains were identified, predominated by CRF02_AG (65.4%), with no influence of genetic diversity PDR occurrence. TDF-3TC-DTG predictive efficacy was superior (98.4%) to TDF-3TC-EFV (92%), p < 0.0001. The overall high rate of PDR in Cameroon, not substantially affected by the wide HIV-1 genetic diversity, underscores the poor efficacy of EFV/NVP-based first-line ART nationwide, with major implications in two regions of the country. This supports the need for a rapid transition to NNRTI-sparing regimens, with TDF-3TC-DTG having optimal efficacy at the programmatic level.

Increased HIV drug resistance (HIVDR) with antiretroviral therapy (ART) rollout may jeopardize therapeutic options, especially in this era of transition to fixed-dose tenofovir-lamivudine-dolutegravir (TLD). We studied acquired HIVDR (ADR) patterns and describe potentially active drugs after first- and second-line failure in resource-limited settings (RLS) like Cameroon. A laboratory-based study with 759 patients (≥15 years) experiencing virological failure was carried out at the Chantal Biya International Reference Centre (CIRCB), Yaoundé, Cameroon. Socio-demographic, therapeutic and immunovirological data from patient records were analysed according to HIV-1 genotypic profiles. Median (IQR) ART-duration was 63 (50–308) months. Median CD4 and viremia were 153 (IQR:50–308) cells/mm³ and 138,666 (IQR:28,979–533,066) copies/mL, respectively. Overall ADR was high (93.4% first-line; 92.9%-second-line). TDF, potentially active in 35.7% of participants after first-line and 45.1% after second-line, suggested sub-optimal TLD-efficacy in second-line (64.3%) and third-line (54.9%). All PI/r preserved high efficacy after first-line failure while only DRV/r preserved high-level efficacy (87.9%) after second-line failure. In this resource-limited setting (RLS), ADR is high in ART-failing patients. PI/r strategies remain potent backbones for second-line ART, while only DRV/r remains very potent despite second-line failure. Though TLD use would be preferable, blind use for second- and third-line regimens may be sub-optimal (functional monotherapy with dolutegravir) with high risk of further failure, thus suggesting strategies for selective ART switch to TLD in failing patients in RLS.

Background: Sub-Saharan Africa carries the greatest burden of HIV-infection with increasing drug resistance burden, which requires improved patient management and monitoring. Current WHO recommendations suggest transitioning to dolutegravir-based (adults) or raltegravir-based-regimens (neonates) for initial antiretroviral therapy (ART) and as a suitable alternative in cases of multi-resistance in resource-limited settings. This review aims at synthesizing the current knowledge on dolutegravir use and integrase resistance-associated mutations found before the wide use of dolutegravir-based regimens. Methods: This systematic review will include randomized and non-randomized trials, cohort, and cross-sectional studies published on dolutegravir use or integrase resistance-associated mutations in Sub-Saharan Africa. Searches will be conducted (from 2007 onwards) in PubMed, Embase, Cochrane Central Register of Controlled Trials (CENTRAL), Latin American and Caribbean Health Sciences Literature (LILAC), Web of Science, African Journals Online, and Cumulative Index to Nursing and Allied Health Literature (CINAHL) databases. Hand searching of the reference lists of relevant reviews and trials will be conducted and we will also look for conference abstracts. We will include studies of adults and/or children exposed to integrase inhibitors-based therapies; especially dolutegravir or raltegravir (which is our intervention of interest as compared to other antiretroviral regimens). We will exclude studies of patients with specific co-morbidities such as tuberculosis or opportunistic infections. Primary outcomes will be “the rate of viral suppression” and “the level of drug resistance” on integrase inhibitor-based regimens among patients in Sub-Saharan Africa. Secondary outcomes will be “the effect of baseline viremia on viral suppression,” “the effect of treatment duration on viral suppression,” “the proportion of patients with immune recovery,” “the rate of non-adherence,” “rate of adverse events;” “drug resistance according to different integrase inhibitor-based regimens,” and “drug resistance according to viral subtypes/recombinants.” Two reviewers will independently screen titles and abstracts, assess the full texts for eligibility, and extract data. If data permits, random effects models will be used where appropriate. Subgroup and additional analyses will be conducted to explore the potential sources of heterogeneity (e.g., age, sex, baseline viremia, CD4 following treatment, treatment duration, and adherence level). Discussion: This review will help to strengthen evidence on the effectiveness of integrase strand transfer inhibitors by contributing to current knowledge on the use of dolutegravir and/or raltegravir (especially for neonates) in Sub-Saharan Africa. Results will therefore help in setting-up baseline data for an optimal management of people living with HIV as Sub-Saharan African countries are transitioning to dolutegravir-based regimens. Evidence will also support HIV/AIDS programs in identifying gaps and actions to be undertaken for improved long-term care and treatment of people living with HIV in Sub-Saharan Africa. Systematic review registration: PROSPERO CRD42019122424