Dendritic cells (DCs) are the primary antigen-presenting cells and play key roles in the orchestration of the innate and adaptive immune system. Targeting DCs by nanotechnology stands as a promising strategy for cancer immunotherapy. The physicochemical properties of nanoparticles (NPs) influence their interactions with DCs, thus altering the immune outcome of DCs by changing their functions in the processes of maturation, homing, antigen processing and antigen presentation. In this review, we summarize the recent progress in targeting DCs using NPs as a drug delivery carrier in cancer immunotherapy, the recognition of NPs by DCs, and the ways the physicochemical properties of NPs affect DCs' functions. Finally, the molecular pathways in DCs that are affected by NPs are also discussed.

Arsenic exists universally in freshwater and marine environments, threatening the survival of aquatic organisms and human health. To elucidate arsenic bioaccumulation and biotransformation processes in aquatic organisms, this review evaluates the dissolved uptake, dietary assimilation, biotransformation, and elimination of arsenic in aquatic organisms and discusses the major factors influencing these processes. Environmental factors such as phosphorus concentration, pH, salinity, and dissolved organic matter influence arsenic absorption from aquatic systems, whereas ingestion rate, gut passage time, and gut environment affect the assimilation of arsenic from foodstuffs. Arsenic bioaccumulation and biotransformation mechanisms differ depending on specific arsenic species and the involved aquatic organism. Although some enzymes engaged in arsenic biotransformation are known, deciphering the complicated synthesis and degradation pathway of arsenobetaine remains a challenge. The elimination of arsenic involves many processes, such as fecal excretion, renal elimination, molting, and reproductive processes. This review facilitates our understanding of the environmental behavior and biological fate of arsenic and contributes to regulation of the environmental risk posed by arsenic pollution.

Nanotechnology is having a tremendous impact on our society. However, societal concerns about human safety under nanoparticle exposure may derail the broad application of this promising technology. Nanoparticles may enter the human body via various routes, including respiratory pathways, the digestive tract, skin contact, intravenous injection, and implantation. After absorption, nanoparticles are carried to distal organs by the bloodstream and the lymphatic system. During this process, they interact with biological molecules and perturb physiological systems. Although some ingested or absorbed nanoparticles are eliminated, others remain in the body for a long time. The human body is composed of multiple systems that work together to maintain physiological homeostasis. The unexpected invasion of these systems by nanoparticles disturbs normal cell signaling, impairs cell and organ functions, and may even cause pathological disorders. This review examines the comprehensive health risks of exposure to nanoparticles by discussing how nanoparticles perturb various physiological systems as revealed by animal studies. The potential toxicity of nanoparticles to each physiological system and the implications of disrupting the balance among systems are emphasized.

Cell death is crucial to human health and is related to various serious diseases. Therefore, generation of new cell death regulators is urgently needed for disease treatment. Nanoparticles (NPs) are now routinely used in a variety of fields, including consumer products and medicine. Exhibiting stability and ease of decoration, gold nanoparticles (GNPs) could be used in diagnosis and disease treatment. Upon entering the human body, GNPs contact human cells in the blood, targeting organs and the immune system. This property results in the disturbance of cell function and even cell death. Therefore, GNPs may act as powerful cell death regulators. However, at present, we are far from establishing a structure–activity relationship between the physicochemical properties of GNPs and cell death, and predicting GNP-induced cell death. In this review, GNPs’ size, shape, and surface properties are observed to play key roles in regulating various cell death modalities and related signaling pathways. These results could guide the design of GNPs for nanomedicine.