This study analyses the relationship between receptive vocabulary size in upper-intermediate/advanced learners and EFL proficiency and the skills of reading, writing, listening and speaking. Little research has been conducted on this dimension of lexical knowledge and the four skills (Staehr, 2008; Milton et al., 2010), in spite of the fact that previous studies of separate language skills have highlighted the importance of vocabulary size for language proficiency development. A sample of 42 participants was assessed by means of a receptive vocabulary size test on ten word-frequency levels (1k to 10k), and on both receptive and productive skills (oral and written). Results reveal that vocabulary size explains language proficiency to a large extent, even in learners with vocabularies of more than 5,000 words, though its influence on performance is not as strong as in learners with smaller vocabularies. At a high proficiency level, vocabulary size is closely linked to writing and is moderately correlated with reading, speaking and listening. The findings help to provide a more complete picture than earlier research by including more proficient learners in EFL settings.

Cross-linguistic influence (CLI) is receiving increasing attention in multilingual learners (Cenoz et al., 2001). Research with bilingual learners has analysed CLI in relation to language dominance (see, for instance, Hulk & Müller, 2000; Yip & Stephen, 2000) and to language dominance and grade in school settings (Cenoz, 2003; Lasagabaster, 2003a; Sanz, 2000). The aim of this study is threefold: (a) to analyse the relationship between CLI and grade; (b) to investigate whether learners transfer more content words than function words; and (c) to analyse whether language dominance (in Catalan, Spanish or balanced bilingualism) moderates the relationship between CLI and grade. We examine CLI as measured through the use of borrowings and lexical inventions of EFL bilingual Catalan–Spanish learners (n=474) ranging from grades 5 to 12 in a writing task. The analyses of variance lead us to conclude that (a) learners at higher grades use fewer borrowings and lexical inventions; the differences are statistically significant for borrowings; (b) learners transfer similar proportions of content words and function words; (c) Spanishdominant learners behave differently from balanced bilinguals and Catalandominant learners both in the use of borrowings and lexical inventions. For borrowings, the differences between the groups are significant for grade.

The present study investigates the effects of two subsequent learning contexts, formal instruction (FI) at home and a 3-month stay abroad (SA), on vocabulary acquisition in English as a foreign language (EFL) writing and speaking. Data were collected from 30 Catalan/Spanish learners of English before and after each learning period using a written composition and an oral interview. These samples were examined in terms of quantitative measures of lexical proficiency in the domains of diversity, sophistication, density and accuracy. Native-speaker baseline data were also obtained through the same tasks for comparison purposes. Results reveal that SA is particularly beneficial for written productive vocabulary, and less so for oral, and that progress occurs especially in lexical diversity. FI, however, shows a modest effect on the improvement of oral productive vocabulary and affects namely lexical sophistication.

Learning a Foreign Language (FL) beyond the classroom has become common practice thanks to advances in technology and the use of English as a Lingua Franca. This study explores the types and amount of out-of-school informal exposure to English that Spanish secondary school students typically receive in their daily lives. Informed by recent literature on the influence of extramural activities on FL proficiency, the second aim of this study is to investigate the potential relationship between out-of-school exposure and academic performance, as measured by English school grades. Data were obtained from a questionnaire answered by secondary school students aged 12–16 (N = 2015) regarding the different types and amounts of activities they perform in English outside school. Findings revealed that teenage learners were most frequently exposed to English through audiovisual input. Social media interaction, along with reading and writing (with or without digital support), were closely associated with their English marks. Other popular activities, such as listening to music or playing video games, were not found to be related to proficiency or even showed a negative correlation with it, while less popular activities, such as watching subtitled movies and series, could have greater potential for language learning. This study contributes to the understanding of informal practices in FL learning settings and provides insights that can help bridge interactive language practices and formal curriculum to create holistic learning experiences for language learners.