Our goal with this study was to investigate the contribution of PD-1/PD-L1 immune-checkpoint pathway to maternal immunotolerance mechanisms. Thirteen healthy pregnant women and 10 non-pregnant controls were involved in this project. PBMCs and DICs were isolated from peripheral blood and from decidual tissues. After the characterization of different immune cell subsets, we used fluorochrome-conjugated monoclonal antibodies to measure the expression level of PD-1, PD-L1, NKG2D, and CD107a molecules by flow cytometry. We measured significant alternations in the proportion of decidual immune cell subsets compared to the periphery. Elevated PD-1 expression by decidual CD8+ T, CD4+ T, and NKT-like cells were also detected accompanied by the increased PD-L1 expression by decidual CD4+ T, Treg, NKT-like and CD56 + NK cell subsets compared to peripheral blood. The cytotoxic potential was significantly higher in PD-1- decidual immune cells compared to the periphery, however we measured a significantly lower cytotoxicity in the decidual PD-1+ CD8+ T cells compared with the peripheral subsets. An activation receptor NKG2D expression was decreased by the PD-1+ CD8+ T subsets in the first trimester compared to non-pregnant condition but the expression level of the decidual counterparts was significantly elevated compared to the periphery. The cytotoxic potential of decidual PD1/NKG2D double positive CD8+ T cells was significantly decreased compared to the peripheral subsets. Based on our results we assume that PD-1/PD-L1 pathway might have a novel role in the maintaining of the local immunological environment. Accompanied by NKG2D activating receptor this checkpoint interaction could regulate decidual CD8 Tc cell subsets and may contribute maternal immunotolerance.

The prenatal period and the first years of life have a significant impact on the health issues and life quality of an individual. The appropriate development of the immune system and the central nervous system are thought to be major critical determining events. In parallel to these, establishing an early intestinal microbiota community is another important factor for future well-being interfering with prenatal and postnatal developmental processes. This review aims at summarizing the main characteristics of maternal gut microbiota and its possible transmission to the offspring, thereby affecting fetal and/or neonatal development and health. Since maternal dietary factors are potential modulators of the maternal–fetal microbiota axis, we will outline current knowledge on the impact of certain diets, nutritional factors, and nutritional modulators during pregnancy on offspring’s microbiota and health.

Immune checkpoint molecules, like CTLA-4, TIM-3, PD-1, are negative regulators of immune responses to avoid immune injury. Checkpoint regulators are thought to actively participate in the immune defense of infections, prevention of autoimmunity, transplantation, and tumor immune evasion. Maternal-fetal immunotolerance represents a real immunological challenge for the immune system of the mother: beside acceptance of the semiallogeneic fetus, the maternal immune system has to be prepared for immune defense mostly against infections. In this particular situation, the role of immune checkpoint molecules could be of special interest. In this review, we describe current knowledge on the role of immune checkpoint molecules in reproductive immunology.

The augmenting acceptance and application of herbal medicine in prevention and treatment of diseases also involve the use of plant essential oils (EOs) through different routes of administration (aromatherapy). Scientific data supporting the efficacy of certain herbal products are continuously growing; however, the cumulative evidence is not always sufficient. The anti-inflammatory properties of EOs have been investigated more extensively and also reviewed in different settings, but so far, our review is the first to summarize the immune-supporting properties of EOs. Our aim here is to synthesize the currently available data on the immune function enhancing effects of EOs. An online search was conducted in the PubMed database, which was terminated at the end of July 2019. Other articles were found in the reference lists of the preselected papers. Studies that applied whole EOs with known components, or single EO constituents under in vitro or in vivo laboratory conditions, or in human studies, and de facto measured parameters related to immune function as outcome measures were included. Two specific fields, EO dietary supplementation for livestock and fish, and forest bathing are also explored. Some EOs, particularly eucalyptus and ginger, seem to have immune function enhancing properties in multiple studies.

Female reproductive health is strongly associated with healthy vaginal microbiota, which is thought to be ensured by the dominance of certain Lactobacillus species. Lactobacilli control the vaginal microenvironment through several factors and mechanisms. One of them is their ability to produce hydrogen peroxide (H₂O₂). The role of Lactobacillus-derived H₂O₂ in the vaginal microbial community has been intensively investigated in several studies with many designs. However, results and data are controversial and challenging to interpret in vivo. Defining the underlying mechanisms responsible for a physiological vaginal ecosystem is crucial since it could directly affect probiotic treatment attempts. This review aims to summarize current knowledge on the topic, focusing on probiotic treatment possibilities.

Various formats of forest bathing have been receiving increasing attention owing to their perspectives in health promotion and the treatment of chronic lifestyle diseases. The majority of field studies are still being conducted in the Far Eastern region, and they often make psychological assessments mainly in the green season. In our pretest–posttest field experiment, twelve healthy, working-age volunteers participated in a 2-h leisurely forest walking program, first in the green season (May) and then in the winter season (January), in the Mecsek Hills, next to Pécs, Hungary. Systolic blood pressure decreased after the trips both in late spring and in the winter. Based on changes in the expressions of CD69, an early activation marker, NKG2D, a major recognition receptor, perforin, granzyme B, and TIM-3, an inhibitory immune checkpoint molecule, on CD8+ cytotoxic T, NK, NK^dim, NK^bright, and NKT cells, we detected the stimulation of NK^bright cells and activation of all examined immune cell subsets in the green season. In the winter, a slight activating and an interesting balancing effect regarding TIM-3 could be observed considering our finding that basal (pretest) TIM-3 expression by NK cells was significantly lower in the winter. Our work expands the knowledge on and potentials of forest medicine.