A meta-analysis demonstrated that programmed fluid intake (PFI) aimed at fully replacing sweat losses during a 1 h high-intensity cycling exercise impairs performance compared with no fluid intake (NFI). It was reported that thirst-driven fluid intake (TDFI) may optimize cycling performance, compared with when fluid is consumed more than thirst dictates. However, how TDFI, compared with PFI and NFI, impacts performance during a 1 h cycling time-trial performance remains unknown. The aim of this study was to compare the effect of NFI, TDFI and PFI on 1 h cycling time-trial performance. Using a randomized, crossover and counterbalanced protocol, 9 (7 males and 2 females) trained endurance athletes (30 ± 9 years; Peak $\stackrel{·}{V}$ O₂∶ 59 ± 8 mL·kg⁻¹·min⁻¹) completed three 1 h cycling time-trials (30 °C, 50% RH) with either NFI, TDFI or PFI designed to maintain body mass (BM) at ~0.5% of pre-exercise BM. Body mass loss reached 2.9 ± 0.4, 2.2 ± 0.3 and 0.6 ± 0.2% with NFI, TDFI and PFI, respectively. Heart rate, rectal and mean skin temperatures and ratings of perceived exertion and of abdominal discomfort diverged marginally among trials. Mean distance completed (NFI: 35.6 ± 1.9 km; TDFI: 35.8 ± 2.0; PFI: 35.7 ± 2.0) and, hence, average power output maintained during the time-trials did not significantly differ among trials, and the impact of both PFI and TDFI vs. NFI was deemed trivial or unclear. These findings indicate that neither PFI nor TDFI are likely to offer any advantage over NFI during a 1 h cycling time-trial.

This study aimed to examine whether repeated exposures to low (2%) and moderate (4%) exercise-induced hypohydration may reverse the potentially deleterious effect of hypohydration on endurance performance. Using a randomized crossover protocol, ten volunteers (23 years, $\dot{\mathrm{V}}$O_2max: 54 mL∙kg⁻¹∙min⁻¹) completed two 4-week training blocks interspersed by a 5-week washout period. During one block, participants replaced all fluid losses (EUH) while in the other they were fluid restricted (DEH). Participants completed three exercise sessions per week (walking/running, 55% $\dot{\mathrm{V}}$O_2max, 40 °C): (1) 1 h while fluid restricted or drinking ad libitum, (2) until 2 and (3) 4% of body mass has been lost or replaced. During the first and the fourth week of each training block, participants completed a 12 min time-trial immediately after 2% and 4% body mass loss has been reached. Exercise duration and distance completed (14.1 ± 2.7 vs. 6.9 ± 1.5 km) during the fixed-intensity exercise bouts were greater in the 4 compared to the 2% condition (p < 0.01) with no difference between DEH and EUH. During the first week, heart rate, rectal temperature and perceived exertion were higher (p < 0.05) with DEH than EUH, and training did not change these outcomes. Exercise-induced hypohydration of 2% and 4% body mass impaired time-trial performance in a practical manner both at the start and end of the training block. In conclusion, exercise-induced hypohydration of 2% and 4% body mass impairs 12 min walking/running time-trial, and repeated exposures to these hypohydration levels cannot reverse the impairment in performance.

We investigated the effect of repeated exposures to hypohydration upon cognitive performance. In a randomized crossover design, ten physically active adults completed two 4-week training blocks, one where they maintained euhydration (EUH) and the other where they were water-restricted (DEH) during walking/running at 55% $\stackrel{.}{\mathrm{V}}$O_2max, 40 °C. Three sessions per week were performed: (1) 1 h of exercise, (2) exercise until 2% or (3) 4% of body mass has been lost or replaced. Limited to the first and fourth training week, a 12 min walking/running time-trial was completed following the 2 and 4% exercise bouts. Trail making, the Wisconsin card sort, the Stop signal task, Simple visual reaction time and Corsi block-tapping tests were performed immediately following the time-trials. Body mass loss was maintained < 1% with EUH and reached 2.7 and 4.7% with DEH following the time-trials. Except for a lower percentage of correct responses (% accuracy) during the Wisconsin card sort test (p < 0.05) with DEH compared to EUH, no statistically significant decline in cognitive performance was induced by low and moderate levels of hypohydration. Compared to week 1, no statistical differences in cognitive responses were observed after repeated exposures to hypohydration (all p > 0.05). From a practical perspective, the gains in cognitive performance following training to DEH were mostly unclear, but under certain circumstances, were greater than when EUH was maintained. Based on the battery of cognitive tests used in the current study, we conclude that whether physically active individuals are habituated or not to its effect, exercise-induced hypohydration of 2 and 4% has, in general, no or unclear impact on cognitive performance immediately following exercise. These results encourage further research in this area.