Here we review information on maternal behaviour in dogs, defined as a combination of all the acts of the mother towards her offspring, which begins before parturition and continues until weaning. In dogs, maternal care is measured using the most commonly observed behaviours, such as the time spent in contact, licking/grooming and nursing of the puppies. Since newborn puppies have a very limited capacity for movement, maternal interaction is essential to their survival, nourishment and protection. It is also an important element of the bonding process between puppies and the bitch and is thought to play a role in the social development of the puppies. Nevertheless, some questions still need to be clarified, such as the best way to quantify factors that may interfere with maternal behaviour. In recent studies, maternal care, or maternal style, was measured using a scoring system and found to be influenced by factors such as litter size, breed and parity, or even human interaction. However, the impact of the emotional state of the bitch and the quality of maternal behaviour on puppy survival and development remain unclear. The long‐lasting effects of mother–puppy interactions on puppy behaviour during their adult life are still poorly understood, despite their importance for breeders who wish to prevent future problem behaviours.

Managing pet obesity relies heavily on the active involvement of owners; however, a key challenge arises from misperceptions about their own pet’s body condition. Given evolving societal dynamics like the body positivity movement, understanding owners’ perceptions is increasingly pivotal. To evaluate the differences in owners’ perception, this study compared the use of verbal and visual body condition score scales versus the established nine-point body condition score system. The factors linked to underestimation were further specifically investigated. Owners of healthy adult dogs and cats attending vaccination consultations in Veterinary Hospitals in France between 2020 and 2022 were recruited. They were required to assess their pets’ body condition initially using an oral description and then with the nine-point BCS visual scale. Their assessments were then compared with the BCS determined by veterinary health care personnel, considered the primary investigator. A total of 304 dogs and 270 cats were included in the study. It was observed that 27% of dog owners and 24% of cat owners underestimated their pets’ body condition. Among dog and cat owners, factors associated with the underestimation of body condition were the pets’ overweight status and having children. This discovery emphasizes the need for a holistic One Health approach that prioritizes the health and well-being of both humans and their pets. When it comes to pet owners evaluating their pets’ body condition, underestimation proved to be the predominant misperception. Addressing this issue requires comprehensive education to empower owners to recognize and comprehend their pets’ overweight status, a critical step for the overall well-being of companion animals.

ADAPTIL^®, a dog-appeasing pheromone, was shown to modify the dam–puppies’ interactions during the neonatal period but could also influence the weaning period. Fourteen bitch/litter dyads continuously exposed to ADAPTIL^® from the third/fourth weeks until the seventh/eighth weeks postpartum were compared to 11 dyads exposed to a placebo. Maternal and puppy behaviours were video-recorded, and at three time points (weeks three/four, weeks five/six and weeks seven/eight) after parturition. The well-being of the puppies and the overall relationship with the bitch were assessed using visual analogue scales (VAS) completed by the caregivers. All mothering behaviours, such as time of contact, licking and the amount of time dedicated to nursing puppies, decreased gradually from weeks three/four to weeks seven/eight. A switch in nursing position was observed over time: the use of the standing position increased compared to the lying position. The treatment had an effect on the nursing position: bitches in the ADAPTIL^® group nursed more often in a lying (p = 0.007) or sitting position (p = 0.037), whereas for the placebo group, they favoured the standing position (p = 0.011). Once the puppies became more demanding for suckling, the bitches started showing rejection signs or aggressive growling, with a peak at weeks seven/eight. The pheromone seemed to reduce the intensity of avoidance in bitches exposed to ADAPTIL^® at all time points. The score of all events combined as a sign of frustration showed a difference over the full period (p = 0.003), with the placebo group having a significantly higher score. From the caregiver perspective (through the VAS), under ADAPTIL^®, the bitches were calmer when puppies tried to suckle (p = 0.001), more tolerant towards pups (p = 0.025), showed a greater motherly attitude (p = 0.016), the puppies cried less when left alone (p < 0.001) and interactions amongst pups were more harmonious (p = 0.055). Under ADAPTIL^®, the bitches were less annoyed by the puppies, who seemed to cope better with frustration. The breeders perceived a benefit of the pheromone during the weaning period.

Background Parturition and the initial postpartum period are important moments in the reproductive cycle of dogs. Methods A study assessed the effect of ADAPTIL, a dog-appeasing pheromone, on maternal behaviour during peripartum. Bitches were continuously exposed to ADAPTIL (n=20) or placebo (n=21) in double-blinded conditions from an average of about seven days before parturition up to 21 days postpartum. Differences in maternal behaviour in relation to the treatment were evaluated by the observation of specific activities through video recordings, such as the time spent by the bitch in close contact with the puppies, oronasal interaction and nursing duration and position. Videos were recorded at four time points (W0: within the first 48 hours of whelping; W1: one week after parturition; W2: two weeks after parturition; and W3: three weeks after parturition). In addition, the perception of breeders in relation to the quality of maternal care, puppies’ wellbeing and overall relationship between the bitches and the puppies was evaluated using Visual Analogue Scale at the same time points. Moreover, the daily activity of the bitches was measured by using an electronic device (FitBark dog activity trackers, Kansas City, Missouri). Results For all observed maternal behaviours, there was a steady decrease in levels as the puppies developed, independently of treatment. However, bitches exposed to ADAPTIL tended to nurse significantly more in lying position, while those exposed to the placebo nursed more in a seated position, especially at W1 (P=0.06) and W3 (P=0.005). According to the breeders, the attention scores of bitches towards puppies were significantly higher in ADAPTIL than in the placebo group at each time point (P=0.01). Moreover, a difference according to parity was observed (P=0.004), with greater attention score displayed by primiparous bitches exposed to ADAPTIL compared with placebo on W0 (P=0.02), W1 and W3 (P<0.001). The global mother–puppies relationship was also perceived as significantly better (P=0.0002) by breeders of bitches exposed to ADAPTIL, with significant differences at W2 (P=0.01) and W3 (P=0.001). The bitches’ daily activity increased starting two days before the whelp, peaked during parturition and then gradually declined up until four days postpartum. There was a trend towards a difference in the activity level according to the treatment during the full study period (P=0.09) and at two days before parturition (P=0.07). Bitches exposed to ADAPTIL were more active compared with placebo in relation to the FitBark data. Conclusion The use of ADAPTIL in maternity modulated maternal behaviours. Concerning the caregiver’s view, bitches under the influence of ADAPTIL had greater and extended attention towards the puppies and they were eager to stay with the puppies for a longer time.

In France, as in many other western countries, dogs are an important part of the society as pets or working animals. The exact demand for puppies in France is unknown, as is the proportion of dogs coming from different breeding sources. Nevertheless, the origin of puppies is important since young dogs from puppy mills and pet stores appear to be more likely to develop behavioral disorders. Puppies coming from responsible breeders, on the other hand, tend to be better adapted. In well-managed kennels, an explanation for these behavioral differences may be associated with greater contact of litters with the dam and humans. Another factor that might influence a dog’s temperament and character is maternal behavior. Although recent studies have shown that the quality of maternal care in dogs is important, direct effects on the development of behavioral problems such as fearfulness or noise sensitivity are still controversial. To better understand the view of breeders, due to an increased interest in maternal care of dogs, an online questionnaire was developed to assess the dog breeders’ profiles and to explore their perception of normal maternal and stress-related behaviors during the peripartum period. In addition, the management of the female during this critical time was queried. Three-hundred and forty-five French dog breeders, representing 91 breeds, completed the online survey. Considering the demographics of the responders, breeding activity in France is mostly family-based with 76% raising two breeds of dogs that produce, on average, five litters/year. Around 60% of the breeders use progesterone levels to determine breeding date. The whelping date is estimated using multiple criteria and most labors and deliveries happen under human supervision. The majority of behaviors associated to good maternal care are defined by the vast majority as being related to more attention of the bitch towards the puppies with the frequency of nursing and licking being important clues. Globally, the peripartum is perceived as a stressful period and to minimize stress and reassure the bitch the favored method used is increasing human presence. Problems related to maternal behavior were described, notably with primiparous bitches.

Dogs are part of many households worldwide and in recent years in some western countries, more and more people describe them as members of the family. The accurate number of dogs per household and the actual demand for puppies are hard to estimate correctly. The sources of dogs seem to be an important element to consider before acquiring a dog since some behavioural disorders are more likely observed in dogs coming from puppy mills and pet stores. Therefore, there is an increased need to better-know dog breeders, theirs believes and practices. To full-fill this objective, an online questionnaire in five different languages (English, German, Polish, Portuguese and Spanish) was sent to dog breeders. The survey intended to study the demographics of dog breeders and to understand their perception and practices about reproduction, maternal behaviour and management of the dam during the peripartum period. We were also interested to evaluate the occurrence and the impact of stress around parturition and how breeders deal with overstressed bitches and if they believe that motherly quality could have a later-on effect on the livelihood of the dog. Six hundred and sixty-eight respondents participated in the survey, mainly from Australia, Brazil, Canada, Germany, Portugal, Poland, Spain, United Kingdom, United States of America and non-listed country (reported as ‘other’ in the survey). A country effect was observed in relation to housing system, human interaction, the use of techniques to define breeding and whelping time and different methods to manage stress during the peripartum period. Considering the demographics of the responders, breeding activity is, in general, a family based activity with an effect of country. Use of progesterone levels to manage reproduction and pregnancy diagnosis by ultrasound were cited as common practice. In general, parturition takes place under human supervision. Peripartum period was perceived as a stressful moment with a difference in the way of addressing the problem based on the country but reassuring the bitch by increasing human presence was frequently described. Inappropriate maternal behaviour was observed by half of responders and if presented primiparous bitches and parturition by C-section were overrepresented. Puppies stayed with the dams from 4 weeks to 9 weeks and dog breeders from Spain, Poland and Portugal are keeping puppies with their mother the longest. Overall, poor maternal behaviour has an impact on puppies’ cognitive development with German breeders being more convinced than their counterparts from Brazil and Spain.