Background: Shilajit is a commonly used Tibetan medicine, and its water extract is mainly used for various heat-related syndrome, especially that of stomach, liver and kidney. Shilajit is found to exudate from rocks of cliff at an altitude of 2000–4000 m as a water-soluble mixture of black paste and animal feces of Trodocterus spp. or Ochotona spp. Because it is difficult to reach the exudation points so as to explain the its formation process, the source of Shilajit still remains unclear and controversial, which severely impedes its safety and efficacy in clinical application. Methods: In this work, a series of investigations as rock flakes identification, porosity determination, rock mineral analysis, scanning electron microscopy (SEM), and energy dispersive spectrometer (EDS) have been carried out to clarify the source of Shilajit, including the storage condition and exudation process of its organic matter, and to investigate the geological structure of the exudation points as well as physical and chemical characteristics of the mother rocks. Results: The Shilajit exudation points were mainly distributed on the steep cliffs, where there were cavities and sections that could not be eroded by rainwater. The fundamental structure of the exudation points was determined by the rock’s bedding planes, joints, fracture surfaces and faults, and developed into micro-topography later. The exudation points were distributed in the Triassic strata and scattered in the Early Mesozoic granitoids. The lithologic features were mainly slate, carbonaceous slate and sandy slate etc. The background rocks were characterized by intergranular pores, dissolved pore, joint and fracture development. Organic matter was widely distributed in these pores and fissures, which had condition for storage and exudation of organic matter. Conclusions: Shilajit mainly distributed on sunny steep slopes and cliffs with a slope of 60° or above at altitude of 2000–4000 m. The lithology character of the Shilajit exudation area were mainly various metamorphic rocks of sedimentary rocks that were rich in organic carbon. The organic matter in Shilajit was found to flow out naturally from rocks along pore, structural plane and even accumulate on the surface of rock as a result of storage environment change caused by rock tectonic action.

Tibetan medicine (TM) and traditional Chinese medicine (TCM) are two independent traditional medical systems. Due to geographical factors, the development of Tibetan medicinal theory is relatively independent, but there are still many shared-use medicines in TM and TCM. However, a thorough and comparative study on those medicines is still absent. This study listed shared-use medicines by TM and TCM and analyzed the similarities and dissimilarities of these two medical systems. This paper also aimed to understand mutual influences like the shared history of TM and TCM and to roughly outline the exchanging process between them. Shared-use medicines in TM and TCM were listed alphabetically. Information on the scientific name, material name, medicinal parts, and medical efficacy were extracted from publications. Shared-use medicines were grouped according to medicinal properties and medicinal parts used by TM and TCM. The historical origin and current status of clinical prescriptions of shared-use medicines were analyzed. A total of 136 shared-use medicines in TM and TCM were listed. Shared-use medicines that were used for a similar purpose in TM and TCM accounted for 14% of the total, while those used for different purposes accounted for 49% of the total, with some of the latter being commonly used in TCM. Shared-use medicinal herbs that originated from both Tibetan and Han regions accounted for 49% of the total, and those that were imported from South Asia and Southeast Asia were frequently observed in TM. Owing to its unique geographical location and cultural diversity, the Tibetan region played a role as a development cradle for various traditional medicinal theories and knowledge. Medicinal knowledge was exchanged between TM and TCM during their parallel independent growth. Shared-use medicines in TM and TCM were mostly determined by flora similarity and medicinal trade, and they marked significant differences in their medicinal properties. However, medicines that were used for similar purposes in TM and TCM presented obvious commercial medicinal characteristic as well as the same chemical profile. The Tibetan region not only provided medicinal usage knowledge of TCM, but also served as a supply of medicinal resources attributing to “high altitude” locations.

Background: Eleutherococcus giraldii (E. giraldii) is a quintessential traditional Chinese medicinal plant with significant developmental potential. Its growth and development are highly responsive to environmental factors, particularly light conditions. However, the endogenous hormonal changes in E. giraldii under shading stress remain unclear, and its adaptive growth strategies require further investigation. Methods: Experimental groups with varying light transmittance (29.12%, 39.68%, and 100%) were established using shade nets, comprising moderate shading, light shading, and control groups. The endogenous hormone contents in apical and lateral leaves of E. giraldii were quantified using the enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA). Statistical analysis and graphical presentations were performed using IBM SPSS Statistics 27 and Origin 2022 software. Results: Shading treatment consistently promoted the accumulation of isopentenyl adenine nucleoside (iPA), zeatin riboside (ZR), gibberellic acid 3 (GA₃), and abscisic acid (ABA) in both apical and lateral leaves of E. giraldii, while exhibiting differential effects on indoleacetic acid (IAA)-enhancing its content in lateral leaves but reducing it in apical leaves. Quantitative analysis revealed that moderate shading induced: (1) maximal increases in iPA, ZR, and GA₃ levels in apical leaves (P < 0.05); (2) maximal increases in ABA, iPA, ZR, and GA₃ concentrations as well as the ABA/ZR ratio in lateral leaves; (3) maximal reductions in the ABA/iPA and ABA/GA₃ ratios in apical leaves along with the ABA/GA₃ ratio in lateral leaves; (4) decreased ABA/IAA and ABA/ZR in apical leaves coupled with increased ABA/iPA in lateral leaves. Under light shading conditions, the most substantial changes included: (1) greatest ABA enhancement in apical leaves and IAA accumulation in lateral leaves; (2) most pronounced declines in IAA content (apical leaves) and ABA/IAA ratio (lateral leaves); (3) elevated ABA/IAA and ABA/ZR ratios in apical leaves with concurrent reduction of ABA/iPA in lateral leaves. Importantly, comprehensive correlation analysis demonstrated positive correlations among all examined hormones (ABA, IAA, iPA, ZR, and GA₃) in both leaf types, indicating systemic hormonal coordination during shade adaptation. Conclusion: Shading stress significantly restructured endogenous hormone profiles and their homeostasis in E. giraldii. Under moderate shading conditions, E. giraldii likely adopted a conservative strategy characterized by “apical leaf growth promotion coupled with lateral leaf growth restriction”, whereas mild shading induced an expansive strategy featuring “apical leaf growth inhibition coordinated with moderate lateral leaf expansion”. These findings provide a theoretical foundation for optimizing cultivation protocols and offer new insights into phytohormonal dynamics in shrubs under light limitation.

Background: Its backdrop of multiethnic living makes Yanbian County rich in national culture, and the unique climate and topography make this area rich in medicinal plants. The exchange, collision and integration of the medical cultures of ethnic groups in Yanbian County are of great research significance. The Miao, Yi and Lisu are the most populous ethnic groups in Yanbian. Therefore, in this study, we investigated, sorted and analyzed these three ethnic medical systems with the goal of providing a basis for the study of ethnic medicine in Southwest China.Methods: The medicinal plants of Miao medicine (MM), Yi medicine (YM) and Lisu medicine (LM) in Yanbian County were inventoried by identifying the collected plant specimens and interviewing the local ethnic doctors with a semistructured form. The inventory included scientific names, family names, Latin names, medicinal parts, diseases treated and other information on the medicinal plants. Finally, the Jaccard similarity index (JI), cluster analysis and functional equivalent species mining were used to preliminarily analyze the similarities and differences of the three ethnic medical systems.Results: A total of 345 medicinal plants (from 109 families and 299 genera) and 18 unreported special situations of medicinal plant use were recorded and documented in our ethnobotanical investigation of the three medical systems. There were 102 species of medicinal plants with shared uses in MM, YM and LM, among which the families with the most species were Compositae (14 species, 14%), Labiatae (6 species, 6%), Polygonaceae (4 species, 4%) and Rosaceae (4 species, 4%). In the three medical systems, these medicinal plants are used to treat 12 types of disease, and the most commonly used medicinal parts are whole plants, roots and rhizomes. The statistical data showed that the JI of MM and YM was the highest (47.6%), and the overall similarity of these medical systems was the highest among all comparisons (45.9%). The results showed that in Yanbian, MM and YM were more similar than LM.Conclusions: The Miao, Yi and Lisu groups in the study area have inherited a wealth of ethnic medicine knowledge but are in great danger of losing this knowledge. The results of this study fill the existing knowledge gaps concerning MM, YM and LM in Yanbian, and the almost complete dataset can allow us to preserve ethnic medicine knowledge and carry out a global analysis. The important shared-use medicinal plants in the three medical systems can be used as the basis for future research on new drug resources.

Eleutherococcus giraldii (E. giraldii) is a quintessential medicinal plant in traditional Chinese medicine. This study established control, heavy pruning, and light pruning groups to reveal growth indexes and endogenous phytohormones in cultivated E. giraldii using enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA). Results indicated that light pruning significantly promoted length of new branch elongation, thereby increasing E. giraldii branch bark yield. In contrast, heavy pruning inhibited length of new branch elongation and reduced branch bark production. Both pruning intensities enhanced the number and length of newly sprouted clonal plants, facilitating population expansion of E. giraldii. The heavy pruning altered the trends of indoleacetic acid (IAA) and abscisic acid (ABA) in apical leaves, as well as IAA and gibberellic acid 3 (GA₃) in lateral leaves. The light pruning modified the trends of IAA, ABA, and isopentenyl adenine nucleoside (iPA) in apical leaves, as well as IAA and GA₃ in lateral leaves. Apical leaf IAA promoted new branch growth in E. giraldii, while lateral leaf IAA exhibited the opposite effect. iPA played a significant role in eliminating apical dominance and enhancing stress resistance in E. giraldii. GA₃ inhibited new branch growth while delaying leaf senescence. Apical leaf ABA was closely associated with improved stress resistance, whereas lateral leaf ABA primarily inhibited new branch growth. This study provides valuable insights for establishing sustainable logging strategies for E. giraldii, protecting wild resources, and offers reference for research on endogenous hormone responses in shrubs under logging interventions.

Background The Miao, Yi and Lisu ethnic groups all have traditional medicinal knowledge, and the unique climate and topography of Yanbian County make it rich in medicinal plants. So the exchange, collision and integration of medical cultures of ethnic minorities in Yanbian County have research significance. The study compared and analyzed the similarities and differences in the traditional medicinal usage of the Miao, Yi and Lisu ethnic groups in Yanbian, to provide the basis for the traditional medicinal culture and characteristics of the three medical systems in southwest China. Methods 36 sample plots were selected in this study and 5 sample quadrats were randomly set up in each plot to collect specimens. Identified the collected medicinal plant specimens, and sort out the catalog of medicinal plants of Miao medicine (MM), Yi medicine (YM) and Lisu medicine (LM) in Yanbian County. The catalog includes scientific name, family names, latin names, medicinal parts, and diseases treated, etc. The existing traditional doctors were interviewed to supplement the efficacy and usage of the medicinal plants in the catalog. Finally, the similarities and differences of the three medical systems were analyzed and sorted out the special medication in each ethnic group. Results Among the medicinal plants collected in the sample plot survey, 345 species of 299 genera and 109 families are used in the 3 medical systems. 102 species are shared-use in MM, YM and LM, among which Compositae (14 species, 14%), Labiatae (6 species, 6%), Polygonaceae (4 species, 4%) and Rosaceae (4 species, 4%) were the dominant families. The statistical data shows that the Jaccard similarity index (JI) of the MM and YM is the highest (47.6%), and the whole similarity percentage of the drug system is the highest (45.9%). A total of 18 special usages were used in MM, YM and LM in Yanbian. Conclusions The results show that a large number of shared-use medicinal plants in MM, YM and LM in Yanbian County. The reason may be the intersecting medicine collecting location, frequent market communications and exchanges, and the influence of Han medicine. The more similar geographic environment, vegetation types, lifestyles, and closer spatial distance have resulted in MM and YM in Yanbian County being more parallel than those of LM.