Agroecosystems provide a range of benefits to society and the economy, which we call ecosystem services (ES). These services can be evaluated on the basis of environmental and socioeconomic indicators. The irrigation cooling effect (ICE), given its influence on the land surface temperature (LST), is an indicator of climate regulation services from agroecosystems. In this context, the objective of this study is to quantify the ICE in agroecosystems at the local scale. The agroecosystem of citrus cultivation in Campo de Cartagena (Murcia, Spain) is used as a case study. Once the LST was retrieved by remote sensing images for 216 plots, multivariate regression methods were used to identify the factors that explain ICE. The use of a geographically weighted regression (GWR) model is proposed, instead of ordinary least squares, as it offsets the spatial dependence and gives a better fit. The GWR explains 78% of the variability in the LST, by means of three variables: the vegetation index, the water index of the crop, and the altitude. Thus, the effects of the change in land use on the LST due to restrictions on the availability of water (up to 1.22 °C higher for rain-fed crops) are estimated. The trade-offs between ICE and the other ES are investigated by using the irrigation water required to reduce the temperature. This work shows the magnitude of the climate regulation service generated by irrigated citrus and enables its quantification in agroecosystems with similar characteristics.

Given agriculture's direct dependence on nature, the climate change effects on agroecosystems may reduce (in quantity and/or quality) agroecosystem services and increase agroecosystem disservices. To achieve a transition pathway for sustainable intensification, best management practices (BMPs) should be considered. These practices may be even more necessary in intensified irrigated agroecosystems, especially in water-scarce areas such as the semi-arid Mediterranean region. There is a knowledge gap in understanding the role of BMPs for climate change impact abatement in these agroecosystems. In this context, the aim of this paper is to characterize the BMPs for climate change in semi-arid Mediterranean intensified irrigated agroecosystems, based on the analysis of agroecosystem services and disservices of six BMPs. A set of representative indicators of the agroecosystem services and disservices have been selected and quantified by using data from data statistics, interviews with farmers, specialized literature, geographic information systems and life cycle analysis. In addition, correlation analysis has been carried out to identify synergies and trade-offs between services and disservices for each BMPs. Results show that the adoption of BMPs for climate change impact abatement would enhance the provision of agroecosystem services. Specifically, the establishment of perimeter hedgerows or the application of biological control practices would improve biodiversity, whereas crop diversification would improve recreation services. The adoption of BMPs would also serve to reduce the provision of agroecosystem disservices, such as the use of organic fertilization to mitigate eutrophication and the use of regulated deficit irrigation to reduce irrigation water use. The adoption of a specific BMP that is expected to benefit one agroecosystem service may not have the same effect on the provision of another type of service or disservice, and vice versa. These results enable decision-makers in semi-arid Mediterranean irrigated agriculture to develop agri-environmental policies in response to climate change and to anticipate the expected benefits and burdens on their farms.