The Varaždin aquifer represents the main source of water for public supply, agricultural, and industrial purposes in the Varaždin County in NW Croatia. In the last decades, this area has experienced contamination of groundwater with nitrates. This study describes the conceptualization of the Varaždin aquifer for the purpose of developing numerical model of groundwater flow and nitrate transport. Within the study, three important elements are defined: aquifer geometry, recharge from precipitation, and other boundary conditions. 3D aquifer model revealed that Varaždin aquifer consist of three layers: upper aquifer, semipermeable interlayer, and lower aquifer. The Wetspass-M model was used for the assessment of spatial and temporal distribution of water balance components for the period 2008–2017. Results of the model indicate that the average annual precipitation is distributed as 34% groundwater recharge, 21% surface runoff, and 45% actual evapotranspiration. The maps of equipotential lines show the behavior of the aquifer system and define boundary conditions, i.e., recharge and discharge areas of the aquifer: an inflow boundary from Drava River and accumulation lake Varaždin on the northwest and north, no flow boundary on the west and south, and an outflow boundary on the east.

To understand groundwater flow and geochemical processes within an aquifer, it is necessary to set up a conceptual model of the aquifer. To accomplish this, different methods are used, and one of them is an isotopic technique. The study area is located in the Varaždin area (NW Croatia). The aquifer represents the main source of potable water for the town of Varaždin and the surrounding settlements. The conceptual model of the alluvial aquifer has to be set up prior to creating a groundwater flow and transport model. Measurements of ratios δ¹⁸Ο and δ²H in ground- and surface waters and precipitation samples were carried out. The relationship between ratios δ¹⁸Ο, δ²H, and d-excess for local precipitation in the study area showed that precipitation originates from the Atlantic air masses, although during the colder periods of the year, influence of the Mediterranean air masses was not negligible. The monitored period was warmer and wetter than average. Evaporation was observed at all monitored surface waters, but the largest rate was at the location of a gravel pit in Šijanec. The isotopic composition of the precipitation and groundwater showed a good correlation due to the isotopic homogenization of groundwater along the flow path.

Lakes in coastal lowland areas represent a critically vulnerable environment as a transitional space between freshwater and seawater environments. The paleoenvironmental reconstruction and anthropogenic impact are assessed through the lake sediment cores from Velo, Malo, and Kolanjsko Blato using multi-proxy analyses (sedimentological, mineralogical, geochemical, ¹³⁷Cs and ostracod analyses, and AMS ¹⁴C radiocarbon dating). The freshwater lake Velo Blato was formed at 8100 cal yr BP due to rising groundwater levels as a consequence of sea-level rise. The brackish conditions in Lake Velo Blato started at 7100 cal yr BP, giving the index point for the sea-level curve of 7-m lower than present. Lead concentrations showed slightly increased values in the last 1800 cal yr BP, while the spike in Malo Blato lake sediments probably derived from bird hunting with lead bullets. Kolanjsko Blato sediment core archives the sediment record of the last 2050 years, which represents a shallow brackish coastal wetland under marine influence. Enrichment factors showed the accumulation of Cu, Hg, P, Pb, S, and Zn in the sediments from Kolanjsko Blato in the last 650 cal yr BP, which coincides with the high organic carbon content, and in sediments from Malo Blato after the lake’s formation (from the depth of 20 cm upwards). Anthropogenic Cu introduced into the Kolanjsko Blato sediments is the highest in the surface sample. Surficial sediments from Velo Blato are characterized by the high organic carbon, S, P, and N content, indicating high productivity and eutrophication which led to occasional anoxic conditions on the lake bottom in the last 200 years.