Phosphorus (P) is the restraining aspect in the forest ecosystem, particularly in temperate regions, and makes the ecosystem more liable to nitrogen (N)-derived acidification. However, it remains poorly understood how N and P fertilization together affects soil-P availability and other soil properties. To address this question, a factorial experiment was conducted with N and P additions under two forest ecosystems, i.e., Korean pine plantation (KPP) and natural Korean pine forest (NKPF). Both forests were divided in to three subplots and each subplot underwent four different treatments, i.e., C: control (no N and P addition), L: Low treatment (5 g N m⁻² a⁻¹ + 5 g P m⁻² a⁻¹), M: Medium treatment (15 g N m⁻² a⁻¹ + 10 g P m⁻² a⁻¹), and H: High treatment (30 g N m⁻² a⁻¹ + 20 g P m⁻² a⁻¹). Results revealed that the soil-P fractions changed during N and P fertilization over time although organic-P (Po) fractions were lower than inorganic-P (Pi) fractions. The residual P was increased overall, along with N deposition in soil. Soil organic carbon (SOC) was more present in NKPF soils as compared to KPP. Principal component analysis (PCA) indicated that at medium treatment there is maximum availability of P fractions as compared to other treatments in both forests, while high treatment showed some fixation of P in soils across both forests. Furthermore, SOC showed a negative correlation with residual P, while pH showed a positive correlation. Total N in soil showed a negative correlation with soil pH and residual P. Therefore, it is recommended that application of N and P at the rate of 15 g N m⁻² a⁻¹ + 10 g P m⁻² a⁻¹ is suitable in these two forest types to enhance P availability.

Coarse wood debris (CWD) plays a critical role in forest productivity, nutrient cycling, decomposition, and carbon sequestration, and shapes the carbon pool in the forest ecosystem. However, the elemental composition of CWD varies among different forest types and decay classes for the same dominant tree species (Pinus koraiensis, PK). We compared CWD elemental composition across different forest types (Picea koraiensis-Abies nephrolepis-Pinus koraiensis forest (PAPF), Betula costata-Pinus koraiensis forest (BPF), Tilia amurensis-Pinus koraiensis forest (TPF)), considering four classes of wood decay. Results showed that N, P, Mg, Mn, Na, Zn, S, Al, and Fe concentrations almost totally increased with decay level for all three forest types, except for K in all three forest types and B in Picea koraiensis-Abies nephrolepis-Pinus koraiensis forest (PAPF). Similarly, maximum concentrations of N, P, B, Mg, K, C, Zn, and Mn of CWD were observed in Betula costata-Pinus koraiensis forest (BPF) under varying decay classes, but their maximum concentrations of Fe and S were found in Picea koraiensis-Abies nephrolepis-Pinus koraiensis forest (PAPF) and Tilia amurensis-Pinus koraiensis forest(TPF), respectively. Only C content did not significantly differ in decay classes across all three forest types. The C:N ratio decreased significantly with increasing decay levels across all forest types. The decay rates were significantly related to N concentration and C:N ratio in decay classes across all forest types. These results suggest that C and N concentration are the key factors affecting its decomposition. The variation in nutrient concentrations observed here underscores the complexity of nutrients stored in wood debris in forested ecosystems.

This study aimed to investigate the impact of straw returning (SR) combined with appropriate N application rates on soil properties and maize yield for a double cropping maize system in South China. From 2021 to 2022, a two-year field experiment was conducted (the perennial orientation study began in 2018) with two nitrogen application rates, 0 kg ha⁻¹ (N0) and 250 kg ha⁻¹ (N250), under various straw treatments (SR and traditional planting). The findings revealed that SR, along with the nitrogen application of 250 kg ha⁻¹ (N250), increased soil total nitrogen (TN), soil total phosphorous (STP), and the soil total potassium (STK) content besides soil organic carbon (SOC) and labile organic carbon (LOC); similarly, their interaction improved SOC and LOC in the 0–20 cm soil layer. In addition, within the 20–40 cm soil layer, SR and N250 also increased the soil TN, SOC, LOC, STP, and STK content. Notably, these soil properties exhibited a decrease with increasing soil depth. Furthermore, SR and N250 led to improvements in the grain yield and yield component of maize. Combining SR with N250 led to a significant 101.53% increase in SOC content from 2018 to 2022. Our research indicates that implementing N rates of 250 kg ha⁻¹ under SR is an effective method to boost maize grain yield, enhance soil chemical characteristics, and ensure safe and productive maize cultivation.

Globally, atmospheric nitrogen (N) deposition is rising, adversely impacting soil health, i.e., increasing soil acidity. While phosphorus (P) is the limiting element in the temperate environment and plays a key role in making the ecosystem more vulnerable to N-derived acidification. The impact of elevated N and P inputs on soil acidity and exchangeable base cations have been extensively studied; however, few studies have focused on these parameters, especially within various soil aggregate fractions in the temperate forest. In 2017, a field experiment was conducted under N and P additions with four soil aggregate fractions (>5 mm, 2–5 mm, 0.25–2 mm, and KPP. Thus, soil acidification is primarily caused by a decrease in base cations, such as Ca²⁺ and Mg²⁺, and increase in exchangeable Fe³⁺ and Al³⁺ ions in large macro-aggregates and macro-aggregates, which leads to the depletion of soil nutrients. The initial pH value (5.69) in >5 mm soil aggregate was decreased to (5.4) under high fertilizer application, while a minimum value of 5.36 was observed in 0.25–2 mm aggregates under high fertilizer application. The same trend was observed in all aggregates because of decrease in base cations, which, in turn, affects the vitality and health of the forests.

Coarse woody debris (CWD) has a strong influence on nutrient dynamics and hinders its availability through fixation. The CWD decaying logs, with two states (three and four) impacting on carbon (C) capture, nutrient dynamics and enzymatic properties, were investigated under and away (50 cm) from the logs in three forest types, i.e., the Picea koraiensis-Abies nephrolepis-Pinus koraiensis forest (PAPF), Betula costata-Pinus koraiensis forest (BPF) and Tilia amurensis-Pinus koraiensis forest (TPF). The results showed that soil organic carbon (OC), nitrogen (N), soil pH, other soil nutrients and enzymatic activity were significantly affected by the forest types, decay class and distance from decaying logs in three forests. The CWD, with decay class IV under CWD, resulted in the optimum OC 64.7 mg g⁻¹, N 6.9 mg g⁻¹ and enzymatic activity in the PAPF forest, and the distance effect was negligible for all the forests. A lower soil pH value of 3.8 was observed at decay class IV in the soil collected from the immediate vicinity of the deadwood. CWD play a key role in decaying logs in forest ecosystems to enhance C and the nutrient budget with the improved enzymatic activity of the soil. It was concluded from this research that CWD is a critical factor in the nutrient cycling process of forest ecosystems that contributes functionally to the forest floor by inducing the spatial heterogeneity of enzymatic activity, C and nutrient turnover.

Soil aggregation in forest ecosystem is considered as a significant physical process mainly influenced by manure, fertilizers or combination. This aggregation may directly alter the soil nutrient and their fractions in soil. So, soil samples were collected from two types of forests i.e. Natural Korean pine forests (NKPF) and Korean pine plantation (KPP) in order to know the quantities of organic and inorganic Phosphorus (P) amounts in different aggregate sizes viz. >5 mm, 2–5 mm, 0.25–2 mm, 5 mm) and decreased with the decreasing aggregate size, while other variables, i.e., NaOH-Pi, NaHCO₃-Po, pH and T-N were not affected in aggregate size. H₂O-Pi (48 ppm), NaHCO₃-Pi (68 ppm), NaHCO₃-Po (80 ppm), NaOH-Po (623 ppm), HCL-Po (67 ppm), SOC (20.36 ± 1.6) was estimated in medium fertilizer treatment. PCA analysis showed that spread/variance of data points on F1 (62.90%) is more than spread/variance of data points on F2 (57.74%) in NKPF and KPP, respectively, while correlation matrix showed high correlation between H₂O-Pi and NaOH-Pi (0.63) and H₂O-Pi and NaHCO₃-Pi (0.63) while a strong negative correlation was present between Res-Pi and Po (−0.61). Moreover, litter inputs increased the organic-P fractions in soil particularly at medium treatment.