The Horndeski action is the most general one involving a metric and a scalar field that leads to second-order field equations in four dimensions. Being the natural extension of the well-known scalar-tensor theories, its structure and properties are worth analyzing along the experience accumulated in the latter context. Here, we argue that disformal transformations play, for the Horndeski theory, a similar role to that of conformal transformations for scalar-tensor theories a là Brans–Dicke. We identify the most general transformation preserving second-order field equations and discuss the issue of viable frames for this kind of theory, in particular, the possibility to cast the action in the so-called Einstein frame. Interestingly, we find that only for a subset of the Horndeski Lagrangian such a frame exists. Finally, we investigate the transformation properties of such frames under field redefinitions and frame transformations and their reciprocal relationship.

The direct detection of gravitational waves (GWs) is an invaluable new tool to probe gravity and the nature of cosmic acceleration. A large class of scalar-tensor theories predicts that GWs propagate with velocity different than the speed of light, a difference that can be $\mathcal{O}(1)$ for many models of dark energy. We determine the conditions behind the anomalous GW speed, namely, that the scalar field spontaneously breaks Lorentz invariance and couples to the metric perturbations via the Weyl tensor. If these conditions are realized in nature, the delay between GW and electromagnetic signals from distant events will run beyond human time scales, making it impossible to measure the speed of GWs using neutron star mergers or other violent events. We present a robust strategy to exclude or confirm an anomalous speed of GWs using eclipsing binary systems, the electromagnetic phase of which can be exquisitely determined. The white dwarf binary $\mathrm{J}0651+2844$ is a known example of such a system that can be used to probe deviations in the GW speed as small as $c_g/c-1\gtrsim 2\times {10}^{-12}$ when LISA comes online. This test will either eliminate many contender models for cosmic acceleration or wreck a fundamental pillar of general relativity.

Einstein Telescope (ET) is the European project for a gravitational-wave (GW) observatory of third-generation. In this paper we present a comprehensive discussion of its science objectives, providing state-of-the-art predictions for the capabilities of ET in both geometries currently under consideration, a single-site triangular configuration or two L-shaped detectors. We discuss the impact that ET will have on domains as broad and diverse as fundamental physics, cosmology, early Universe, astrophysics of compact objects, physics of matter in extreme conditions, and dynamics of stellar collapse. We discuss how the study of extreme astrophysical events will be enhanced by multi-messenger observations. We highlight the ET synergies with ground-based and space-borne GW observatories, including multi-band investigations of the same sources, improved parameter estimation, and complementary information on astrophysical or cosmological mechanisms obtained combining observations from different frequency bands. We present advancements in waveform modeling dedicated to third-generation observatories, along with open tools developed within the ET Collaboration for assessing the scientific potentials of different detector configurations. We finally discuss the data analysis challenges posed by third-generation observatories, which will enable access to large populations of sources and provide unprecedented precision.

Kinetic mixing between the metric and scalar degrees of freedom is an essential ingredient in contemporary scalar-tensor theories. This often makes it hard to understand their physical content, especially when derivative mixing is present, as is the case for Horndeski action. In this work we develop a method that allows us to write a Ricci-curvature-free scalar field equation, and we discuss some of the advantages of such a rephrasing in the study of stability issues in the presence of matter, the existence of an Einstein frame, and the generalization of the disformal screening mechanism. For quartic Horndeski theories, such a procedure leaves, in general, a residual coupling to the curvature, given by the Weyl tensor. This gives rise to a binary classification of scalar-tensor theories into stirred theories, in which the curvature can be substituted, and shaken theories, in which a residual coupling to the curvature remains. Quite remarkably, we have found that generalized Dirac-Born-Infeld Galileons belong to the first class. Finally, we discuss kinetic mixing in quintic theories, in which nonlinear mixing terms appear, and in the recently proposed theories beyond Horndeski that display a novel form of kinetic mixing, in which the field equation is sourced by derivatives of the energy-momentum tensor.