Drought vulnerability analysis at the household level can help people identify livelihood constrains and potential mitigation and adaptation strategies. This study used meteorological and household level data which were collected from three different districts (Kavrepalanchowk, Sindhuli, and Saptari) in the Koshi River Basin of Nepal to conduct a drought vulnerability analysis. We developed a model for assessing drought vulnerability of rural households based on three critical components, i.e., exposure, sensitivity, and adaptive capacity. The results revealed that Saptari (drought vulnerability index, 0.053) showed greater vulnerability to drought disasters than Kavrepalanchowk (0.014) and Sindhuli (0.007). The most vulnerable district (Saptari) showed the highest exposure, the highest sensitivity, and the highest adaptive capacity. Kavrepalanchowk had the middle drought vulnerability index with middle exposure, low sensitivity, and middle adaptive capacity. Sindhuli had the lowest vulnerability with the lowest exposure, the lowest sensitivity, and the lowest adaptive capacity. On the basis of the results of the vulnerability assessment, this paper constructed livelihood adaptation strategies from the perspectives of households, communities, and the government. Many households in Kavrepalanchowk and Sindhuli significantly depend on agriculture as their main source of income. They need to implement some strategies to diversify their sources of income. In addition, the most important livelihood adaptation strategy for Saptari is improving water conservancy facilities to facilitate the allocation of water.

Water scarcity is one of the leading challenges for sustainable development in the context of climate change, particularly for agriculturally reliant countries. Inadequate water supplies tend to generate environmental and health issues. Improvements in water supply systems should give priority to the region with the most severe mismatch between water supply and demand. To set priorities for the improvement of water supply systems, this study proposed a water supply-demand balance model to quantify the water supply-demand gap in the Koshi River basin and compared it with the traditional water vulnerability model. The results suggested that (1) the water supply-demand balance model had good applicability to the Koshi River basin and was superior to traditional models in identifying the region with the most severe mismatch; (2) the shortage of agricultural water was much more serious than that of domestic water in the basin; (3) the largest supply-demand gap of domestic water was in Tarai and that of agricultural water was in the hill areas; and (4) Four districts, including Lalitpur, Mahottari, Makwanpur, and Solukhumbu, were found to be the most water-stressed regions and priority should be given to them. Based on these findings, the priority setting in the improvement of water supply systems and adaptation strategies for mitigating water stress from the perspectives of the government, communities, and households were presented. It helps design water supply systems that match heterogeneous demands and optimize systems operation. Targeted improvements in water supply systems can make limited funds available to benefit more residents.

Against the backdrop of life gradually returning to normal following the global pandemic, medical services—as a key component of public infrastructure in livable communities—continue to hold undeniable importance. However, due to the heterogeneous distribution of medical facilities, significant spatial imbalances often exist between central and peripheral areas within urban regions. Life circle theory emphasizes the spatial and temporal accessibility of essential public services within residents’ daily living spaces, while the complex-systems perspective highlights the relationships among service provision, population demand, and contextual conditions. Based on these perspectives, this study develops an assessment framework for the spatial equality of medical service functions and applies population spatialization, the Gaussian two-step floating catchment area (2SFCA) method, and Z-score standardization to evaluate Level I, Level II, Level III, and total medical service functions in Chengdu City, China. Accessibility is used to characterize residents’ modeled opportunities to reach medical services within the differentiated life-circle service ranges, while the spatial equality assessment focuses on the relative spatial correspondence between medical service provision and population demand. Under the predefined service-range and travel-mode assumptions, 97.69% of the population and 63.76% of Chengdu’s metropolitan area are covered by the total medical service function. Accessibility generally decreases from the central urban area and district or county centers toward peripheral areas. Level II, Level III, and total medical service functions exhibit a clear multicenter and hierarchical spatial structure, with higher accessibility in central urban areas and district or county centers than in their peripheral areas. The Z-score analysis further identifies relative supply–demand configurations, including high supply–high demand, low supply–low demand, oversupply, and undersupply, with Level II, Level III, and total medical service functions generally exhibiting a core–periphery pattern. These findings provide an assessment approach and spatial evidence for identifying disparities in medical service provision and supporting the differentiated planning and optimization of medical facilities within livable life circles.