Battery aging is one of the critical problems to be tackled in battery research, as it limits the power and energy capacity during the battery’s life. Therefore, optimizing the design of battery systems requires a good understanding of aging behavior. Due to their simplicity, empirical and semiempirical models (EMs) are frequently used in smart charging studies, feasibility studies, and cost analyses studies, among other uses. Unfortunately, these models are prone to significant estimation errors without appropriate knowledge of their inherent limitations and the interdependence between stress factors. This article presents a review of empirical and semiempirical modeling techniques and aging studies, focusing on the trends observed between different studies and highlighting the limitations and challenges of the various models. First, we summarize the main aging mechanisms in lithium-ion batteries. Next, empirical modeling techniques are reviewed, followed by the current challenges and future trends, and a conclusion. Our results indicate that the effect of stress factors is easily oversimplified, and their correlations are often not taken into account. The provided knowledge in this article can be used to evaluate the limitations of aging models and improve their accuracy for various applications.

This paper proposes a two-stage smart charging algorithm for future buildings equipped with an electric vehicle, battery energy storage, solar panels, and a heat pump. The first stage is a non-linear programming model that optimizes the charging of electric vehicles and battery energy storage based on a prediction of photovoltaïc (PV) power, building demand, electricity, and frequency regulation prices. Additionally, a Li-ion degradation model is used to assess the operational costs of the electric vehicle (EV) and battery. The second stage is a real-time control scheme that controls charging within the optimization time steps. Finally, both stages are incorporated in a moving horizon control framework, which is used to minimize and compensate for forecasting errors. It will be shown that the real-time control scheme has a significant influence on the obtained cost reduction. Furthermore, it will be shown that the degradation of an electric vehicle and battery energy storage system are non-negligible parts of the total cost of energy. However, despite relatively high operational costs, V2G can still be cost-effective when controlled optimally. The proposed solution decreases the total cost of energy with 98.6% compared to an uncontrolled case. Additionally, the financial benefits of vehicle-to-grid and operating as primary frequency regulation reserve are assessed.

This paper proposes a method for optimally dimensioning the components of a prosumer energy management system that integrates photovoltaic (PV) panels, multiple bidirectional electric vehicle chargers, an inverter, and a battery energy storage charger. Besides optimally dimensioning the components, it also optimizes power management while integrating the frequency containment reserve market and Li-ion battery degradation. The results show that the integration of the frequency containment reserve (FCR) market can increase lifetime cost savings by 36%, compared to optimal power management alone and up to 460% compared to non-optimal power management. Furthermore, the effects of PV and battery energy storage (BES) degradation on reservable capacity are analyzed including the importance of battery second-life value on lifetime net present cost is investigated.

Quasi-resonant boundary-conduction mode (QR-BCM) and triangular current mode (TCM) have found widespread use in the literature and industry due to their good performance at relatively low complexity. However, additional control challenges occur when these modulations are applied to the four-switch buck-boost (FSBB) converter, due to a discontinuity in switching frequency in multimode operation. This article presents the first closed-loop operation of a variable-frequency, multimode, quasi-resonant BCM control scheme including smooth mode transitions. The proposed control utilizes feed-forward mode transition techniques, based on software interrupt handlers integrated into the digital control scheme. In contrast to most soft-switching schemes in the literature, the proposed digital control does not imperatively rely on high-frequency current measurements but uses dc measurements and high-frequency voltage measurements instead. A 10 kW prototype is developed with which the proposed modulation is compared with three other soft-switching modulation schemes. Our results indicate that the losses of FSBB converter can be reduced by up to 60% using the proposed modulation. Especially at partial powers and high voltages, significant efficiency gains can be achieved.