Globally, subtropical circulation in the lower troposphere is characterized by anticyclones over the oceans. Subtropical anticyclones locate over subtropical belts, modulating weather and climate patterns in those regions. The Mascarene High is an anticyclone located over the Southern Indian Ocean and has a vital role in weather and climate variability over Southern Africa. The warm Western Indian Ocean is a major source of moisture for the subcontinent also permitting tropical cyclone genesis. In this study, we review the dynamics of the Mascarene High, its interactions with the ocean, and its impact on weather and climate over Southern Africa. We also review studies on the evolution of subtropical anticyclones in a future warmer climate. The links between SST modes over the Indian Ocean and the strengthening and weakening of the Mascarene High have been demonstrated. One important aspect is atmospheric blocking due to the Mascarene High, which leads to anomalous rainfall and temperature events over the subcontinent. Blocking leads to landfall of tropical cyclones and slow propagation of cut-off lows resulting in severe weather and flooding over the subcontinent. Understanding how expansion of the Mascarene High due to warming will alter trade winds and storm tracks and change the mean climate of Southern Africa is crucial.

Climate change has increased the frequency of extreme weather events such as heavy rainfall leading to floods in several regions. In Africa, rural communities are more vulnerable to flooding, particularly those that dwell in low altitude areas or near rivers and those regions affected by tropical storms. This study examined flood vulnerability in three rural villages in South Africa’s northern Limpopo Province and how communities are building resilience and coping with the hazard. These villages lie at the foot of the north-eastern escarpment, and are often exposed to frequent rainfall enhanced by orographic factors. Although extreme rainfall events are rare in the study area, we analyzed daily rainfall and showed how heavy rainfall of short duration can lead to flooding using case studies. Historical floods were also mapped using remote sensing via the topographical approach and two types of flooding were identified, i.e., those due to extreme rainfall and those due to poor drainage or blocked drainage channels. A field survey was also conducted using questionnaires administered to samples of affected households to identify flood vulnerability indicators and adaptation strategies. Key informant interviews were held with disaster management authorities to provide additional information on flood indicators. Subsequently, a flood vulnerability index was computed to measure the extent of flood vulnerability of the selected communities and it was found that all three villages have a ‘vulnerability to floods’ level, considered a medium level vulnerability. The study also details temporary and long-term adaptation strategies/actions employed by respondents and interventions by local authorities to mitigate the impacts of flooding. Adaptation strategies range from digging furrows to divert water and temporary relocations, to constructing a raised patio around the house. Key recommendations include the need for public awareness; implementation of a raft of improvements and a sustainable infrastructure maintenance regime; integration of modern mitigations with local indigenous knowledge; and development of programs to ensure resilience through incorporation of Integrated Development Planning.

Pronounced subsidence leading to summer drought over southern Africa causes warmer than average surface air temperatures or even heatwave (HW) conditions. We investigated the occurrence of HWs during the summer drought over South Africa based on station data and the ECMWF ERA5 reanalyses. Temperature observations from the South African Weather Service were analyzed for seasonality and long-term trends (1981–2020) as background to the occurrence and variability of HWs. We focused on three severe El Niño Southern Oscillation (ENSO)-induced drought seasons, i.e., 1982/83, 1991/92, and 2015/16, to investigate HW characteristics. While 1997/98 was among the strongest El Niño seasons, the impacts were not as severe because it coincided with an intense Angola low, which allowed for rain-bearing cloud bands to form. Results showed that the hottest months were spread across the austral summer season from December to February. Regions experiencing high mean maximum temperatures and high HW frequencies exhibited a strong ENSO signal, with record HWs occurring during 2015/16. The establishment and persistence of a middle-level high-pressure system over Botswana/Namibia (Botswana High) appears to trigger the longest-lasting HWs during drought seasons. The Botswana high is usually coupled with a near-surface continental heat low and/or tropical warm air advection towards the affected region. It was also found that intense ENSO-induced drought events coincided with high HW frequency over South Africa, such as during 1982/83, 1991/92, and the recent 2015/16 events. The results of this study contribute to understanding drought and heat wave dynamics in a region experiencing rapid warming as a result of climate change.

Every year, cut-off low (COL) pressure systems produce severe weather conditions and heavy rainfall, often leading to flooding, devastation and disruption of socio-economic activities in South Africa. COLs are defined as cold-cored synoptic-scale mid-tropospheric low-pressure systems which occur in the mid-latitudes and cause persistent heavy rainfall. As they occur throughout the year, these weather systems are important rainfall producing systems that are also associated with extreme cold conditions and snowfalls. An in-depth review of COLs is critical due to their high impacts which affect some parts of the country regularly, affecting lives and livelihoods. Here, we provide a comprehensive review of the literature on COLs over the South African domain, whilst also comparing them with their Southern Hemisphere counterparts occurring in South America and Australia. We focus on the occurrence, development, propagation, dynamical processes and impacts of COLs on society and the environment. We also seek to understand stratospheric–tropospheric exchanges resulting from tropopause folding during the occurrence of COLs. Sometimes, COLs may extend to the surface, creating conditions conducive to extreme rainfall and high floods over South Africa, especially when impinged on the coastal escarpment. The slow propagation of COLs appears to be largely modulated by a quasi-stationary high-pressure system downstream acting as a blocking system. We also reviewed two severe COL events that occurred over the south and east coasts and found that in both cases, interactions of the low-level flow with the escarpment enhanced lifting and deep convection. It was also determined from the literature that several numerical weather prediction models struggle with placement and amounts of rainfall associated with COLs, both near the coast and on the interior plateau. Our study provides the single most comprehensive treatise that deals with COL characteristics affecting the South African domain.

Anthropogenic activities significantly threaten aquatic ecosystems, accelerating water quality deterioration through pollution, overexploitation, and habitat disturbance. Roodeplaat Dam in South Africa exemplifies these challenges, experiencing nutrient overload driven by malfunctioning wastewater treatment works (WWTWs), urban runoff, and agricultural activities. This study investigates the spatio–temporal dynamics of flow patterns and nutrient loads in Roodeplaat Dam, focusing on the interplay between nutrient pollution, land use, and land cover change (LULCC). A multi-site sampling approach was employed to assess total phosphorus (TP) and nitrate–nitrite (NO₃ + NO₂) loading, complemented by geospatial analysis of LULCC impacts over two decades. The study revealed that TP and NO₃ + NO₂ concentrations surpassed permissible limits at certain monitoring sites, particularly downstream of WWTWs during low-flow periods, demonstrating their substantial role in elevating nutrient levels. The study further revealed that extensive human-driven changes in the catchment area were key contributors to nutrient dynamics. These changes included a reduction in vegetation cover from 65% to 45.17%, an increase in soil exposure from 10.25% to 22.01%, and urban expansion from 26.56% to 32.32%. These alterations disrupt natural nutrient cycles, leading to increased runoff and potential eutrophication of water bodies. Thus, to address these challenges, this study underscores the need for an integrated strategy that combines nature-based solutions, enhanced wastewater treatment, stricter regulatory compliance, and adaptive management to mitigate pollution and improve water resource sustainability. The insights gained from this case study provide valuable guidance for managing similar systems in developing regions under increasing anthropogenic and climatic pressures.