In this study, the ion concentrations (K⁺, Na⁺, Ca²⁺, Mg²⁺, Cl⁻, SO₄²⁻, Br⁻, NO₃⁻, and B³⁺) and boron isotope compositions (δ¹¹B) of 34 halite and brines samples from the Neoproterozoic Salt Range Formation, Punjab, Pakistan were studied. Relation among B³⁺ vs. Mg²⁺, B³⁺ vs. SO₄²⁻, δ¹¹B vs. B³⁺, and δ¹¹B vs K⁺ were observed, they indicated that these elements originate from multiple sources and the end members were identified as seawater, B desorption from clays, and meteoric precipitation. Halite samples of the area under study displayed a Na-HCO₃-type to Ca-Cl type sedimentary basin of deposition, on δ¹¹B vs. 1/B plot. Molar ratios of B/Cl vs. δ¹¹B revealed the addition of B in some of the studied samples from desorption of clay minerals. This type of diagenetic desorption of B from clays is the consequence of a stress driven mechanism, generated in the proximity of a decollement zone. Results confirm that the number of B stable isotopes that fractionate between the brine and the halite is low. The halite δ¹¹B from the Salt Range Formation vary from +2.1 to +24.4‰, compared to +17.3 to +26.1‰ in the salt pool brines, and suggest that boron isotope compositions are controlled by the δ¹¹B of the B sources. The positive relationship between the boron content and the corresponding δ¹¹B indicates a higher salinity and drier paleoclimate conditions during the formation process, associated with a high evaporation rate in the Late Neoproterozoic time. Presence of elevated δ¹¹B in the present study, demonstrate compatibility with other marine basins of the world, arising the need for further investigations to better characterize the ¹¹B-enriching processes.

The Kargah Cu-Pb polymetallic deposit is a newly discovered ore deposit from the Gilgit-Baltistan region, located in the Kohistan Island Arc, northern Pakistan. However, this area is poorly researched on the ore genesis, and its origin and the evolution of its magmatic-hydrothermal system remain unclear. Three stages of mineralization were identified, including quartz-pyrite, quartz-sulfide, and carbonate representing early, middle, and late stages, respectively. The major ore minerals are pyrite, chalcopyrite, galena, and zincian tetrahedrite with minor native silver, and native gold mainly distributed in pyrite. Here, we present a systematic study on ore geology, hydrothermal alterations, trace element composition of pyrite, fluid inclusions, and isotopes (S and Pb) characteristics to gain insights into the nature of the ore-forming fluids, types of unknown deposits, and hydrothermal fluid evolution. The high Co/Ni ratio (1.3–16.4) and Co content (average 1201 ppm), the low Mo/Ni ratio (0.43–0.94) and Mo contents (average 108 ppm) of both Py-I and Py-II suggest a mafic source for the mineralization. The Au-Ni plots, Co-As-Ni correlation, and the δ³⁴S values range from −2.8 to 6.4‰ (average of 3.4‰) indicating the affiliation of the mineralization with a mantle-derived magmatic-hydrothermal provenance. The Pb isotope data showing the narrow variations in ²⁰⁶Pb/²⁰⁴Pb, ²⁰⁷Pb/²⁰⁴Pb and ²⁰⁸Pb/²⁰⁴Pb values suggest a single lead source from crustal-derived materials. The microthermometry data suggest that the dominant mechanisms are fluid boiling and mixing for mineral precipitation at temperatures ranging between 155 and 555 °C, and represent an intrusion-related magmatic-hydrothermal environment for the Kargah Cu-Pb polymetallic deposit.