Wildlife populations are spatially controlled and undergo frequent fluctuations in abundance and site occupation. A comprehensive understanding of dynamic species processes is essential for making appropriate wildlife management plans. Here, we used a multi-season model to describe the dynamics of occupancy estimates of the carnivores: North Chinese leopard (Panthera pardus japonensis, Gray, 1862), leopard cat (Prionailurus bengalensis, Kerr, 1792), and red fox (Vulpes vulpes, Linnaeus, 1758) in the Tieqiaoshan Nature Reserve, Shanxi Province, China, over a three-year study period using camera traps data. The occupancy probability of the North Chinese leopard did not markedly change with time as the occupancy equilibrium was constant or slightly enhanced. The occupancy of the leopard cat decreased with time. The occupancy equilibrium of the red fox alternately increased and decreased. However, all species presented a slight level of occupancy stability due to their small values of the rate of change in occupancy. Environmental factor and anthropogenic disturbances slightly influenced the occupancy of all species and the colonization and extirpation probability of the red fox. The colonization and extirpation for all species were relatively more strongly affected by the distances to villages and roads. Moreover, elevation increased the colonization and decreased the extirpation for the leopard cat. Species interaction factors increased with time for all species. The North Chinese leopard and the leopard cat avoided each other. The leopard cat and the red fox independently co-occurred. There was true coexistence between the North Chinese leopard and the red fox. This research confirmed that environmental factors and human perturbations are vital factors to consider in wild carnivores’ conservation and management.

Livestock depredation by large carnivores is a conventional human–wildlife conflict, both at the local and regional level. Many species of wildlife have become endangered because of this conflict. In this study, an investigation of livestock depredation was conducted for the north China leopard in and around Tieqiaoshan Provincial Nature Reserve in Shanxi Province between 2015 and 2018. Data were obtained from League Cat Forest Department records. Additionally, standardized, structured, and semi-structured questionnaires were used to collect data with the help of reserve field staff. The results show that there was a significant difference (p = 0.015) in livestock depredation in various seasons of the year; the highest depredation was recorded in spring, followed by summer. A significant difference (p = 0.02) was observed between cattle and other livestock species, showing that more cattle were killed by the north China leopard. Most of the livestock depredation occurred during late morning and evening, likely because the leopards are crepuscular. Residents in and around the reserve suffered a high economic loss, ranging between RMB 5000 and 10,000 (USD 706.76–1413.53) per year in terms of the estimated market price of the killed livestock. The attitudes of residents towards the north China leopard vary according to the economic activities of the locals, with about 76% of the livestock keepers reporting that the leopard is “very dangerous” and 8% of the arable farmers in and around the reserve indicating that leopard is “very dangerous.” We recommend that a system with local participants would ensure more effective management of human-north China leopard conflict, as it would allow local communities to take greater responsibility.

Anthropogenic activities put biodiversity under pressure, adversely affecting the forest ecosystem and wildlife habitats. Habitat disturbance and modification are among the main threats to animal populations in tropical forests. In the Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC), Grauer’s gorillas (Gorilla beringei graueri) are continuously threatened through forest encroachment for agricultural expansion, human settlements, new refugee camps, illegal logging, and mining across the country. Moreover, poaching and bushmeat trafficking continuously threaten gorillas’ existence. These drivers increase the proximity of humans and the risk of disease transmission. The emerging and existing zoonotic diseases, including Ebola, are continuously impacting gorillas’ lives. All of these pressures combined are disrupting natural behavior patterns and are leading to the decline in the Grauer’s gorillas’ population. Therefore, this review scrutinizes findings on the anthropogenic pressures on the habitats and survival of Grauer’s gorillas. Also, it is important to engage with people for the shared conservation role and ecotourism to support the conservation of forest biodiversity and Grauer’s gorillas’ habitats, particularly for the Maiko National Park in the DRC.

Gorillas play important roles in the sustainability of biodiversity and in the cultures of Indigenous communities, offering unique biological behaviors and contributing to forest regeneration. Grauer’s gorilla (Gorilla beringei graueri) is one of the flagship species of biodiversity in the Democratic Republic of Congo. In this study, we carried out a systematic review to assess the challenges and threats facing Gorilla beringei graueri, as well as conservation strategies. We used search engines such as Google Scholar, Web of Science, Baidu, and China National Knowledge Internet (CNKI) to screen for literature published in the period between 2000 and 2025. We found that the existence of Grauer’s gorilla is under constant threat from an increasing demand for precious minerals, the establishment of mining sites in the forests, and the establishment of new road networks in the gorillas’ range, as well as from poaching, deforestation, and climate change. These pressures have exacerbated the decline of the Grauer’s gorilla population, necessitating attention from both the DRC and the global community to safeguard this endangered species. Several strategies for the conservation of Grauer’s gorilla are already underway in the Kahuzi-Biega National Park; these aim to reduce or contain the threats and challenges facing Grauer’s gorilla. This comprehensive review serves as a recommendation to Indigenous communities, local people, government agencies, conservation NGOs, and the public, encouraging them to understand the consequences of the decline in the Grauer’s gorilla population and to advocate for urgent and effective conservation strategies.

Nighttime temperatures in the Afro-alpine zone (>2050 m) of Kahuzi-Biega National Park frequently fall below 5 °C. However, the thermal advantages provided by night nests of Grauer’s gorilla, Gorilla beringei graueri along this elevation gradient have yet to be quantified. From 3 January to 7 January 2025, 80 night nests were located along the Mt. Kahuzi–Biega ridge (2000–2650 m above sea level); 66 with complete data were analyzed. Nest-interior and ambient temperatures were measured using calibrated mercury thermometers, while canopy openness was assessed through sky-facing photographs analyzed with ImageJ. Canopy openness ranged from 18% at 2050 m (dense bamboo) to 83% at 2625 m (open ericaceous scrub), with a mean of 50.5 ± 18.8%. The interiors of the nests consistently exhibited warmer temperatures than the humid ambient air, with a mean temperature difference of 2.03 ± 0.37 °C, ranging from 1.39 to 2.68 °C. Linear mixed-model analysis (n = 66) indicated a significant reduction in thermal buffering correlated with increasing elevation (β = −7.4 × 10⁻⁴ °C m⁻¹, 95% CI −8.9 × 10⁻⁴ to −5.9 × 10⁻⁴, p < 0.001) and greater canopy openness (β = −0.020 °C per %, p < 0.001); fog density and precipitation from the previous night did not exhibit a significant effect. The model explained 78% of the variance in ΔT (marginal R²). Over a 650 m Afro-alpine gradient, Grauer’s gorillas create a 2.0 °C thermal refuge, which decreases by approximately 30% near the summit. This study represents the first quantitative evidence that canopy density can mitigate the elevation penalty for any African great ape. Canopy retention is the only terrestrial mechanism that can mitigate accelerated warming at high altitudes, which is occurring at a rate of +0.45 °C per decade. Without canopy retention, national conservation strategies for the Democratic Republic of Congo must allocate funds for extended energy subsidies at elevations exceeding 2500 m.