Parkinson's disease (PD) is a degenerative neurological disease presenting with motor and non-motor signs and symptoms. Approximately 30-50% of the patients experience pain. There is no consensus regarding the mechanisms and classification of pain in PD. This paper reviews current data on the possible mechanisms, classifications, evaluation and potential risk factors for pain in PD. Literature searches were performed to identify clinical trials and reviews covering patho-physiology, classification, type, evaluation and risk factors associated with pain in PD. Pain in PD could be related to pathologic changes in the anatomic structures involved in nociceptive mechanisms. Studies on pain mechanisms have been mostly conducted in animals. The mechanism of pain is complicated and influenced by different factors. There are several methodological differences between the studies trying to classify pain and to characterize its subtypes. Potential risk factors for pain in PD include: age, gender, and duration of the disease. Although pain is one of the non-motor symptoms most frequency experienced by patients, it is often under recognized and inadequately treated in contrast to motor symptoms Multicenter studies are needed that include a large cohort of subjects evaluated in multiple dimensions including pain in order to obtain more data and to allow improved management of pain in patients with PD.

To investigate the effects of different exercise protocols on ataxia in patients with multiple sclerosis (MS). A total of 42 MS patients, 17 male and 25 female (Expanded Disability Status Scale (EDSS): 3-5), were enrolled in this randomized controlled study. The patients were divided into three groups: a balance training (BT) group, a lumbar stabilization (LS) group and a task-oriented training (TT) group. All groups received balance training; additionally, the LS group received lumbar stabilization exercises, and the TT group received task-oriented training. The Berg Balance Scale (BBS), International Cooperative Ataxia Rating Scale (ICARS), Functional Reach Test (FRT), 2-Minute Walk Test (2MWT), Sensory Organization Test (SOT), and measurement of Somatosensory Evoked Potentials (SSEPs) were performed before and at the end of the 18 training sessions. The BBS, ICARS, FRT, 2MWT, and composite balance score of the SOT were improved in all groups. The ICARS kinetic function sub-score and the left limb cortical onset amplitudes of SSEPs were increased significantly in both the TT and the LS groups. The ICARS total score, composite balance score, and 2MWT were different between groups (p < 0.05). According to multiple comparison analyses of the ICARS total score and the composite balance score, the LS, and the TT group were different from the BT group (p < 0.005), while the LS and the TT groups improved similarly (p > 0.005). The 2MWT results were better for the LS group than the BT group, while the BT and the TT groups improved similarly. Balance training alone is not sufficient for rehabilitation of ataxic MS patients. A combination of lumbar stabilization exercises or task-oriented training increases the success of balance rehabilitation. Implications for rehabilitation Multiple sclerosis is a chronic inflammatory and autoimmune disease of central nervous system and ataxia is one of the most challenging symptoms of this disease. Different exercise modalities are commonly employed to control ataxic symptoms in MS patients. Lumbar stabilization exercises or task-oriented training should be considered as complementary approach to improve balance and coordination in ataxic multiple sclerosis patients.

Background: Fatigue is emerging as a major public health problem that is highly associated with poor health-related quality of life and disability. Among adults, fatigue has become increasingly common because of workload or lifestyle changes. This study aimed to cross-culturally adapt the Chalder Fatigue Scale (CFS) into Turkish, to investigate its psychometric properties, and to establish normative data in healthy adults by age and gender. Methods: The validity of the CFS was tested with a total sample of 476 healthy adults aged 20–40 years (264 males and 212 females) and test–retest/measurement error analyses were performed with 161 participants (94 males and 67 females). The test–retest reliability was examined using the intraclass correlation coefficient (ICC), and internal consistency was determined using Cronbach's α-coefficient. Predictive validity was assessed using the Receiver Operating Characteristic to validate the cut-off value of the CFS for non-fatigued and fatigued participants. Factor analyses and hypothesis testing were conducted to assess construct validity. Hypothesis testing examined convergent and known-group validity by testing 14 predefined hypotheses. Results: The mean (SD) and median (25–75%) CFS scores were 10.7 (4.9) and 11 (7–14) for the total sample (n = 476). The cut-off point for CFS was set at ≥ 12 with a sensitivity of 65.8% and a specificity of 85.9%. The CFS provided evidence of excellent fit of the two-factor structure (CFI = 0.963, RMSEA = 0.06, SRMR = 0.02). There was evidence of strong internal consistency demonstrated by Cronbach's α = 0.863 and good test–retest reliability by ICC = 0.76. Thirteen out of 14 hypotheses (92.9%) were confirmed and the scale showed low to moderate correlation with other measurement instruments (r = 0.31–0.51). Conclusions: The CFS has been shown to be a reliable and valid instrument that can be used in various populations for the assessment of fatigue. Level of evidence: Level II.

Objective: To examine the efficiency of electrical stimulation in combination with Bobath techniques in the prevention of inferior and anterior shoulder subluxation in acute stroke patients.

To determine the effects of sensorimotor integration training on postural control in Parkinson`s disease. This prospective, randomized controlled trial was conducted at Hacettepe University (Ankara, Turkey). The study was carried out from August 2012 until March 2015 and included 24 Parkinson`s patients with stage 2-3 according to the Modified Hoehn&Yahr Rating Scale. The patients were divided into 2 groups (control and study). The control group received conventional physiotherapy; the study group received sensorimotor integration training combined with conventional physiotherapy, 2 times per week for 6 weeks. We assessed the patients with clinical balance tests and computerized dynamic posturography. Assessments were performed at baseline, 7- and 12-weeks follow-up. Computerized dynamic posturography posturography values (5th and 6th positions, composite balance, and vestibular system scores) were higher in the study group than in the control group. The improvements were maintained at the 12-week follow up except 6th positions scores (p<0.05). Sensorimotor integration training combined with conventional physiotherapy approach ameliorated postural control by improving vestibular system in patients with Parkinson`s disease by improving sensory processes.