Target-specific delivery has become an integral area of research in order to increase bioavailability and reduce the toxic effects of drugs. As a drug-delivery option, trigger-release liposomes offer sophisticated targeting and greater control-release capabilities. These are broadly divided into two categories; those that utilise the local environment of the target site where there may be an upregulation in certain enzymes or a change in pH and those liposomes that are triggered by an external physical stimulus such as heat, ultrasound or light. These release mechanisms offer a greater degree of control over when and where the drug is released; furthermore, targeting of diseased tissue is enhanced by incorporation of target-specific components such as antibodies. This review aims to show the development of such trigger release liposome systems and the current research in this field.

Amino acids are ubiquitous vital biomolecules found in all kinds of living organisms including those in the microbial world. They are utilised as nutrients and control many biological functions in microorganisms such as cell division, cell wall formation, cell growth and metabolism, intermicrobial communication (quorum sensing), and microbial-host interactions. Amino acids in the form of enzymes also play a key role in enabling microbes to resist antimicrobial drugs. Antimicrobial resistance (AMR) and microbial biofilms are posing a great threat to the world’s human and animal population and are of prime concern to scientists and medical professionals. Although amino acids play an important role in the development of microbial resistance, they also offer a solution to the very same problem i.e., amino acids have been used to develop antimicrobial peptides as they are highly effective and less prone to microbial resistance. Other important applications of amino acids include their role as anti-biofilm agents, drug excipients, drug solubility enhancers, and drug adjuvants. This review aims to explore the emerging paradigm of amino acids as potential therapeutic moieties.

The total number of paediatric formulations available only account for a small proportion of the full therapeutic plethora required to effectively treat paediatrics and, therefore, the availability of high quality medicines designed specifically for children remains an ongoing challenge. Currently, the World Health Organisation (WHO) report that around 50% of medication issued for long-term conditions are not taken as advised, whilst it has also been established that, in general practice, around one tenth of medicines prescribed for children are either off-label or unlicensed. Such off-label and unlicensed use is owing to the considerable anatomical and physiological differences observed between paediatric subsets. Identifying such differences, is essential for better informing paediatric drug development and assisting regulatory reviews, whilst ensuring safe and effective therapeutic concentrations of pharmacological substances. Points covered: The review discusses factors affecting the safety, toxicity and efficacy of paediatric drug delivery systems. The research highlights features of the gastrointestinal tract and reports anatomical and physiological differences between paediatrics and adults. Additionally, differences observed in paediatric pharmacokinetic profiles (absorption, distribution, metabolism and elimination) due to physiological differences are also discussed. Furthermore, this review considers the advantages and limitations of current paediatric specific dosage forms available and assesses the acceptability of innovative small flexible solid oral dosage forms. Lastly, this review highlights factors affecting paediatric medicine adherence and acceptability and discusses the techniques available to overcome barriers associated with non-adherence.