In livestock, the importance of hygiene management is gaining importance within the context of biosecurity. The aim of this study was to monitor the implementation of biosecurity and hygiene procedures in 20 swine herds over a 12-month period, as driven by tailor-made plans, including training on-farm. The measure of adenosine triphosphate (ATP) environmental contents was used as an output biomarker. The presence of livestock-associated methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (LA-MRSA) and extended-spectrum β-lactamase producing Escherichia coli (ESBL-E. coli) was also investigated as sentinels of antibiotic resistance. A significant biosecurity improvement (p = 0.006) and a reduction in the ATP content in the sanitised environment (p = 0.039) were observed. A cluster including 6/20 farms greatly improved both biosecurity and ATP contents, while the remaining 14/20 farms ameliorated them only slightly. Even if the ESBL-E. coli prevalence (30.0%) after the hygiene procedures significantly decreased, the prevalence of LA-MRSA (22.5%) was unaffected. Despite the promising results supporting the adoption of tailor-made biosecurity plans and the measure of environmental ATP as an output biomarker, the high LA-MRSA prevalence still detected at the end of the study underlines the importance of improving even more biosecurity and farm hygiene in a one-health approach aimed to preserve also the pig workers health.

Poor health and increased susceptibility to infectious diseases are among the main sources of economic losses in the pig industry worldwide, and they also serve as indicators of compromised animal welfare. However, there is limited information on long-lasting biomarkers of poor health and common infections experienced by piglets early in life. Hair cortisol, dehydroepiandrosterone sulfate (DHEA(S)), and their ratio have been proposed as components of the mammalian stress response due to the activation of the hypothalamus–pituitary–adrenal axis and were investigated in this study using 30 batches of pigs from 16 farms. The research hypothesis was that batches of piglets experiencing clinical syndromes (as indicated by enteric, neurological, cutaneous, and locomotor scores) during suckling would exhibit a different pattern of resilience and allostatic load later in life compared to healthy ones. Hair from 25 gilts per batch were collected at either 3.5 or 9 months of age, and hormone extraction was subsequently performed. The farm of origin and the age of the animals significantly influenced hormone concentrations. Moreover, batches affected by enteric disease showed lower DHEA(S) levels (p < 0.0001; 15.89 vs. 23.51 pg/mg) and higher cortisol/DHEA(S) ratio (p < 0.0001; 82.83 vs. 55.02) than healthy batches. Similar results were observed in batches with a neurological syndrome (DHEA(S): p < 0.0001; 12.91 vs. 19.43; cortisol/DHEA(S) ratio: p < 0.0001; 97.15 vs. 70.26 pg/mg). These results suggest that pig hair biomarkers carry an intrinsic and temporally stable signal related to early life health status.

Contamination, animal-related factors, and management practices. In swine production, Merialdi et al. (50) demonstrated a preventive effect of C&D procedures on environmental contamination, although this effect was not constant across productive phases and was more pronounced in farrowing crates than in later stages. Longitudinal studies (66,67) have shown that MRSA nasal carriage dynamics vary markedly with age, with differences in prevalence among herds largely attributed to management practices, while the role of the environment has been recognized as contributory and deserving further investigation.The time required for the complete and proper execution of the developed hygiene protocol can be considered among the factors contributing to the improved sanitary status of the trial trucks, as it is longer than the average time recorded for control trucks at the slaughterhouse. Indeed, time constraints are frequently reported as a reason for haulers' non-compliance with truck C&D procedures (5, 15, 68). While a duration of two and a half hours may be feasible for trucks transporting live pigs, it is hardly compatible with the slaughterhouse's tight routine. Nevertheless, this protocol could serve as a starting point for improving hygiene management in market trucks, tailoring it to fit the slaughterhouse's tight schedule while still ensuring an adequate sanitary level.A limitation of this study is that the trial and control trucks did not belong to the same production chain and therefore transported different groups of pigs, which may have varied in terms of age, origin and health status. These differences could have influenced the baseline microbial load, particularly in compartments such as the interior cargo area. However, it is important to note that the aim of the study was not to directly compare performance between different fleets, but rather to demonstrate the effectiveness of the standardized C&D protocol applied to the trial trucks. The control group served as a contextual benchmark to support the observed outcomes in the trial group, rather than as a strictly matched comparator.To further improve the proposed protocol, it is recommended to ensure that surfaces are completely dry before applying the disinfectant, as excessive water accumulation inside the vehicle can dilute the disinfectant and compromise its effectiveness, while increased residual moisture may also favor bacterial survival and proliferation (21). In addition, the improved protocol should also include cleaning both underneath and on top of the truck. Further research should focus on the validation of this C&D protocol in the field, and on individual ATP threshold and critical limits. To ensure the protocol's effectiveness and long-term adoption, it should ideally be supported by regular training and reinforced through oversight by competent authorities or independent control bodies. To improve biosecurity of trucks, other strategies may be used, such as rerouting, as proposed by Galvis et al. (65,69). Finally, the authors emphasize that improving truck hygiene does not justify non-compliance with haulers' biosecurity measures. Although the responsibility of the truck C&D lies with the animal transport driver (5), the widespread use of contract livestock haulers (instead of farmed-owned transport) hinders the enforcement and monitoring of biosecurity compliance (3). Haulers must remain aware of proper biosecurity practices on farms to avoid undermining the efforts invested in C&D."The references were listed incorrectly in this order: The relevant in-text citations have been corrected in section 4.2 Trucks C&D effectiveness against MRSA, paragraphs 6-10, as follows:The high prevalence of MRSA even after C&D has been highlighted as a critical One Health issue (61), since MRSA is considered an indicator organism for the presence of antibiotic-resistant bacteria for both animals and humans (54). In this context, while the transmission of MRSA from truck drivers to pigs has not been conclusively demonstrated (59), available data suggest that drivers are more likely to be victims of occupational exposure than sources of infection. Studies in pig and poultry abattoirs have reported MRSA prevalences ranging from 22% to 40% among lorry drivers (62 -64), underscoring the importance of robust hygiene protocols, not only to limit environmental MRSA loads and protect animal health, but also to safeguard the health of transport workers operating in high-risk settings.Searching for the best application of a C&D protocol, the proper selection of disinfectants should not be overlooked, as their documented efficacy against priority swine pathogens, including African swine fever virus (8), as well as their ability to act against bacterial biofilms, can ultimately determine the success of C&D. MRSA, for example, is a biofilmproducing pathogen, recognized for its persistence and capacity to cause chronic infections, including in hospitals, where biofilm formation confers additional resistance to C&D (65). However, the available literature indicates that biofilm formation represents only one of several mechanisms potentially involved in MRSA persistence. MRSA persistence in livestock production systems is widely acknowledged to be multifactorial, resulting from the interaction between microbial characteristics, environmental contamination, animal-related factors, and management practices. In swine production, Merialdi et al. (50) demonstrated a preventive effect of C&D procedures on environmental contamination, although this effect was not constant across productive phases and was more pronounced in farrowing crates than in later stages. Longitudinal studies (66,67) have shown that MRSA nasal carriage dynamics vary markedly with age, with differences in prevalence among herds largely attributed to management practices, while the role of the environment has been recognized as contributory and deserving further investigation.The...

Porcine reproductive and respiratory syndrome virus (PRRSV) remains a constraint to the sustainability of pig production. This 32-month retrospective case study compared the epidemiological, productive, and economic resilience of two intensive farrowing units in Northern Italy, a conventional farm and a Next-Generation Farm (NGF), integrating advanced structural, technological, and management features. Epidemiological resilience was assessed using time-to-stability (TTS), while productive dynamics were monitored through statistical process control, including cumulative sum charts (CUSUMs), for six key performance indicators. Economic indicators were also collected. TTS was 49 weeks in the NGF versus 91 weeks in the conventional farm, prolonged by a second heterologous PRRSV strain. CUSUM monitoring identified early production deviations 9–21 weeks before virological detection, particularly in return-to-service and fertility rates. During TTS, instability in farrowing, return-to-service, and fertility rates were more persistent in the conventional farm (55.2%, 20.7%, and 17.2% out-of-control signals) than in the NGF (0%, 0%, and 6.7%). Post-outbreak, feed, medication, and labor costs per weaned piglet were lower in the NGF than the conventional unit, resulting in lower combined operating costs (€51.30 vs. €57.67/piglet, respectively). CUSUM may complement virological surveillance by providing early evidence of herd-level production deviations preceding PRRSV detection. Overall, the NGF suggested greater resilience through faster epidemiological recovery, greater reproductive stability, and lower operating costs, supporting the potential of NGF systems and a multidimensional approach to resilience and sustainability.

Inadequately cleaned transport vehicles can act as reservoirs for pathogens jeopardizing pigs’ health status. Although effective cleaning and disinfection (C&D) of live-pig transport trucks is required by law, there is still no universally accepted protocol for C&D of trucks. This study aimed to evaluate the effectiveness of a standardized hygiene protocol under field conditions and to provide practical guidance, thereby fostering harmonized hygiene procedures. Starting from current legislation for barn C&D, and refining it through available literature, a detailed standardized protocol for truck hygiene was developed. Each vehicle was divided into three functional sections: transport unit, boot-storage compartment, and driver’s cabin. The protocol was applied to 15 trial trucks transporting live pigs and compared with 23 market trucks, which served as controls. C&D was assessed through visual inspection, adenosine triphosphate (ATP) testing, and microbiological analyses of environmental samples, including total viable count (TVC) on all trucks. Samples were collected at the three functional sections of the trucks. Trial trucks achieved significantly higher visual scores than control trucks (82.10 ± 9.72 vs. 72.20 ± 7.48; p = 0.0018). The 80% cleanliness threshold required for ATP testing was achieved by nearly half of the trial trucks (46.7%) but by only one control truck (4.3%) ( p = 0.0065). Microbiological results further highlighted the protocol effectiveness: all cleaned trial trucks showed low mean TVC values (<10 CFU/cm ² or a 3 log₁₀ CFU/cm ² reduction, as acceptable threshold). In contrast, only 33.3% of driver’s cabin swabs and 50.0% of cargo-area swabs from control trucks met this threshold, while none of the boot storage samples did ( p = 0.0254). Bacteriological testing revealed MRSA in 100% of trial trucks before C&D, but in 0% after cleaning ( p = 0.0079). Overall, the standardized protocol markedly improved the sanitary status of pig-transport vehicles. The combined use of different assessment methods proved valuable for identifying critical control points, particularly the boot-storage area, the most contaminated site. The protocol also showed strong potential for eliminating MRSA from trucks, contributing to reduce antimicrobial resistance transmission. These findings provide a replicable and field-ready model for improving C&D compliance and biosecurity across the swine transport sector.