Migratory birds have been implicated in the spread of diverse emerging infectious pathogens, including West Nile virus, Usutu virus, Avian influenza viruses, Salmonella, Campylobacter, antimicrobial-resistant (AMR) bacteria, and antibiotic resistance genes (ARGs). Beyond their roles as vectors and reservoirs, migratory birds are also susceptible hosts whose own health may be compromised by these infections, reflecting their dual position in the ecology of pathogens. As facilitators of pathogen transmission during their long-distance migrations, often spanning thousands of kilometres and connecting ecosystems across continents, these birds can easily cross-national borders and circumvent traditional biosecurity measures, thereby acting as primary or secondary vectors in the transmission of cross-species diseases among wildlife, livestock, and humans. Africa occupies a pivotal position in global migratory bird networks, yet comprehensive data on pathogen carriage remain limited. Gaps in knowledge of pathogen diversity constrain current surveillance systems, resulting in insufficient genomic monitoring of pathogen evolution and a weak integration of avian ecology with veterinary and human health. These limitations hinder early detection of novel pathogens and reduce the continent’s preparedness to manage outbreaks. Therefore, this review provides a holistic assessment of these challenges by consolidating existing knowledge concerning the pathogens transmitted by migratory birds in Africa, while recognizing the adverse effect of pathogens, which potentiates population decline, extinction, and ecological imbalance. It further advocates for the adoption of a comprehensive One Health-omics approach that not only strengthens surveillance and technological capacity but also prioritizes the protection of avian health as an integral component of ecosystem and public health.

Due to adverse effects and limited efficacy of conventional drugs for benign prostate hyperplasia, medicinal herbs are increasingly used. However, the efficacy of these medicinal plants in treating benign prostate hyperplasia is not well established. This systematic review and meta-analysis evaluated the efficacy of herbal medicine for benign prostate hyperplasia in animal studies. This review was registered with PROSPERO (CRD42024459483). A search was conducted in Scopus, PubMed, and Google Scholar. The outcomes measured were prostatic index, prostate-specific antigen, dihydrotestosterone, and testosterone. A random effects model was used for the meta-analysis. Subgroup analysis was based on plant part used, type of preparation (crude extract vs. pure compound), and treatment form (single vs. multiple plants) for benign prostate hyperplasia. A total of 71 studies involving 97 plants from 49 families were included. Meta-analysis showed statistically significant improvements in all measured outcomes, including reductions in prostate-specific antigen (standardized mean difference = 1.871, p < .001), prostatic index (standardized mean difference = 3.664, p < .001), and dihydrotestosterone (standardized mean difference = 3.678, p < .001), as well as an increase in testosterone levels (standardized mean difference = 8.178, p < .001). Subgroup analyses revealed that efficacy varied by plant part, extract type (crude vs. pure), and whether single or multiple herbs were used. The evidence shows that plants are beneficial in the treatment of benign prostate hyperplasia. This is, however, determined by the part of the plant used, crude extract or pure compound, and whether it is a single or multiple plants. These findings underscore the widespread use of medicinal plants for benign prostate hyperplasia treatment. Cite this article as: Basiru, A., Bashiru, H. A., Akorede, G. J., Aremu, A., Azeez, A. O., Ishola, A. O., & Odetokun, I. A. (2026). Herbal medicine in the treatment of benign prostate hyperplasia: A systematic review and meta-analysis of animal studies. Acta Veterinaria Eurasia, 52, 0249, doi: 10.5152/actavet.2026.25249.

Antimicrobial resistance [AMR] is a silent yet intensifying global threat, with particularly severe consequences in tropical and subtropical ecosystems, where high ecological connectivity, widespread antimicrobial use, and inadequate sanitation create ideal conditions for the persistence and spread of antimicrobial resistance genes [ARGs]. Within the One Health framework, migratory birds warrant special attention because they traverse tropical AMR hotspots, linking contaminated aquatic, agricultural, and peri-urban environments along established flyways. Evidence from tropical regions demonstrates that migratory birds frequently carry clinically meaningful ARGs, including extended-spectrum β-lactamases [ESBLs], carbapenemases, and colistin resistance [mcr] genes, highlighting their role as biological connectors that redistribute resistant bacteria between human-dominated and natural ecosystems and contribute to the expansion of the global resistome. Addressing the complex interface among AMR, migratory birds, and ARGs requires integrative surveillance strategies that explicitly incorporate wildlife into existing health systems. Genomic and metagenomic monitoring of migratory bird populations, combined with cross-sectoral data sharing, can provide early warning signals of emerging resistance patterns and inform evidence-based interventions. Understanding the ecological role of migratory birds in tropical ecosystems is therefore essential for designing effective One Health strategies to curb transboundary AMR dissemination and preserve the long-term efficacy of antimicrobial therapies.

Mucosal surfaces constitute the principal immunological interface between mammals and their environments, continuously integrating dietary antigens, the commensal microbiota, and exposure to pathogens. These barrier sites are organized into compartmentalized immune networks that coordinate epithelial surveillance, antigen sampling, immunoglobulin A (IgA) diversification, and tissue-resident immune responses. However, prevailing paradigms in mucosal immunology are derived predominantly from murine and human systems and often assume broad conservation of mucosal immune organization across mammals. Emerging comparative evidence challenges this assumption as ruminants, monogastrics, carnivores, and reservoir wildlife species exhibit substantial divergence in mucosal architecture, Peyer’s patch ontogeny, epithelial sensing pathways, and immune–microbiota interactions, reflecting adaptation to distinct ecological and dietary pressures We propose that mucosal immunity serves as an ecological filter shaping microbial persistence, pathogen shedding, and zoonotic transmission at barrier sites where pathogen emergence initiates. Failure to account for species-specific mucosal immune organization may limit cross-species extrapolation of vaccine responses, microbiome-targeted therapeutics, and zoonotic risk prediction. We further argue that variation in mucosal compartmentalization contributes directly to reservoir competence by influencing immune tolerance, microbial filtering, IgA repertoire diversification, and pathogen persistence within host populations. Finally, we identify major unresolved questions and highlight the need for comparative spatial immunology and integrated mucosal multi-omics to develop predictive models of host–pathogen interaction within a One Health framework.

Migratory birds have been implicated in the spread of diverse emerging infectious pathogens, including West Nile virus, Usutu virus, Avian influenza viruses, Salmonella, Campylobacter, antimicrobial-resistant (AMR) bacteria, and antibiotic resistance genes (ABGs). By acting as vectors, reservoirs, or hosts, they facilitate pathogen transmission during their long-distance migrations, often traversing thousands of kilometres and connecting ecosystems across continents. This ability allows them to easily traverse national borders and bypass traditional biosecurity measures, thereby acting as primary or co-conspirators in cross-species disease transmission among wildlife, livestock, and humans. Africa occupies a pivotal position in global migratory bird networks, yet comprehensive data on pathogen carriage remain limited. Gaps in knowledge of pathogen diversity constrain current surveillance systems, insufficient genomic monitoring of pathogen evolution, and weak integration of avian ecology with veterinary and human health. These limitations hinder early detection of novel pathogens and reduce the continent’s preparedness to manage outbreaks. Therefore, this review provides a holistic assessment of these challenges by consolidating existing knowledge concerning the pathogens transmitted by migratory birds in Africa, including the routes, drivers, and mechanisms of disease dissemination. It also offers a concise reappraisal of current surveillance systems and advocates for the adoption of a comprehensive One Health-omics approach, coupled with technological policies and strategies that encompass habitat management, agricultural reform, advanced surveillance, technological innovation, and cross-sectoral policy interventions.

Antimicrobial resistance [AMR] is a silent yet intensifying global threat, with particularly severe consequences in tropical and subtropical ecosystems, where high ecological connectivity, extensive antimicrobial use, and inadequate sanitation create ideal conditions for the persistence and spread of antimicrobial resistance genes [ARGs]. Within the One Health framework, migratory birds warrant special attention because they traverse tropical AMR hotspots, linking contaminated aquatic, agricultural, and peri-urban environments along established flyways. Evidence from tropical and subtropical regions indicates that migratory birds frequently carry clinically relevant AMR-associated pathogens, including extended-spectrum β-lactamase-producing Escherichia coli, multidrug-resistant Salmonella enterica, and fluoroquinolone- and macrolide-resistant Campylobacter spp. These findings suggest that migratory birds primarily function as ecological sentinels and geographic redistributors of antimicrobial resistance, reflecting environmental contamination and ecological connectivity between human-dominated and natural ecosystems, while evidence for long-term reservoir status remains context-dependent. Addressing the complex interface among AMR, migratory birds, and ARGs requires integrative surveillance strategies that explicitly incorporate wildlife into existing health systems. Genomic and metagenomic monitoring of migratory bird populations, combined with cross-sectoral data sharing, can provide early warning signals of emerging resistance patterns and inform evidence-based interventions. Understanding the ecological role of migratory birds in tropical ecosystems is therefore essential for designing effective One Health strategies to mitigate transboundary AMR risks and preserve the long-term efficacy of antimicrobial therapies.