Acute pain, provoked generally after the activation of peripheral nociceptors, is an adaptive sensory function that alerts the individual to avoid noxious stimuli. However, uncontrolled acute pain has a maladaptive role in sensory activity leading to development of a chronic pain state which persists even after the damage is resolved, or in some cases, in the absence of an initial local acute injury. Huge numbers of people suffer from visceral pain at least once during their life span, leading to substantial health care costs. Although studies reporting on the mechanism of visceral pain are accumulating, it is still not precisely understood. Therefore, this review aims to elucidate the mechanism of visceral pain through an evaluation of different animal models and their application to develop novel therapeutic approaches for treating visceral pain. To assess the nociceptive responses in viscera, several visceral pain models such as inflammatory, traction, stress and genetic models utilizing different methods of measurement have been devised. Among them, the inflammatory and traction models are widely used for studying the visceral pain mechanism of different disease conditions and post‐operative surgery in humans and animals. A hapten, 2,4,6‐trinitrobenzene sulfonic acid (TNBS), has been extensively used as an inflammatory agent to induce visceral pain. The traction model seems to cause a strong pain stimulation and autonomic reaction and could thus be the most appropriate model for studying the underlying visceral pain mechanism and for probing the therapeutic efficacies of various anesthetic and analgesics for the treatment of visceral pain and hyperalgesia.

Objective: To determine the effect of age and frequency of collection on quality parameters of Jersey bull semen at National Livestock Breeding Center (NLBC), Pokhara. Materials and Methodology: Nine Jersey bulls were selected randomly from NLBC. To obtain the effect of age, six bulls of three different age interval (3-4, 5-7 and 8-9 years) were selected randomly. Remaining three bulls were used to determine the effect of frequency of collection on semen quality. Studies were conducted for three months (Nov/Dec to Dec/Jan, 2016). Semen quality was analyzed using CASA system and SMILE software. ANOVA and paired t- tests were applied to find out level of significance. All the statistical analyses were done using SPSS 17.0 Results: Sperm concentration, post- thaw motility, live sperm, and abnormal sperm were significantly affected by the age of the bulls. Semen quality was found superior in the bulls belonging to 5-7 years of age intervals. Significantly higher value for semen volume, sperm concentration and post- thaw motility was obtained on second collection (P<0.05). However, volume initial motility, pre-filling motility, live sperm and abnormal sperm percentage did not differ significantly among different age intervals and between the frequencies of collection. Conclusion: Different quality parameters of semen like volume, concentration, initial motility, pre-filling motility, post thaw motility, live and normal spermatozoa percentages were higher in 5-7 years old bulls and in second collection of semen. Int. J. Appl. Sci. Biotechnol. Vol 7(1): 88-95

A male German shepherd dog of 11 months was presented to HART Clinic, Pokhara with the history of abdominal swelling, respiratory distress, lethargy, anorexia and weakness. Physical examination revealed dyspnea, pale mucous membrane, and undulating movement (thrills) of fluid on tapping the abdomen. Fecal sample collected for assessing the severity of endoparasites which was found negative. The hematological study showed an increase in numbers of neutrophils, while there were decreased erythrocytes and hemoglobin concentration. The biochemical analysis resulted in an elevated SGOT, SGPT level but decrease in total protein level. Ascitic fluid collected from abdominal paracentesis on examination revealed transudate fluid with serum-albumin ascetic gradient (SAAG) >1.1 gm/dl suggesting ascites due to portal hypertension (96% accuracy) caused by Liver cirrhosis. The dog was diagnosed as ascites of hepatic origin resulting portal hypertension and hypoproteinemia. The abdominocentesis was performed to drain the ascetic fluid followed by albumin and normal saline administration. The dog was further treated with antibiotic, diuretic, amino acid and liver tonics along with protein rich but salt free diet. The dog showed remarkable improvement with gradual reduced in abdominal distention and normalization of the appetite after 7 days of treatment.Int. J. Appl. Sci. Biotechnol. Vol 5(4): 555-558

Peste des Petits ruminants (PPR) is a highly contagious trans-boundary animal disease associated with 100% morbidity and 80-90% mortality in goat herds. The study was carried out to assess the immune status against PPRV in unvaccinated and post vaccinated flock as well as immune response as it relates to age, sex and breed using a homologous tissue culture PPR vaccine produced by National Vaccine Production Laboratory, Kathmandu, Nepal. A total 276 blood samples were randomly collected from different regions of Parbat, Baglung and Myagdi districts with a population of 0.0189 million goats. Out of these, 214 goats were vaccinated one month earlier and 62 were unvaccinated. PPR antibody was detected by using competitive enzyme linked immunosorbent assay (c-ELISA) (ID Screen, PPR competition test kit, IDvet France). Of the unvaccinated goats, 25.8% (16/62) were sero-positive suggesting prior exposure to PPRV. In the vaccinated goats, 75.2% (161/214) were sero-positive and 2.8% (6/214) animals were doubtful, suggesting a significant proportion failed to respond to vaccination. The competition percentage (S/N%±SD) of post-immunization (49.19±32.19) were significantly (p<0.01) lower in comparison to the respective unvaccinated mean titre (75.76±35.51). There is no significant effect of age, sex or breed on the antibody titre value in PPR vaccinated animals. The sero-prevalence of PPR in unvaccinated animals suggested that these flocks are in high susceptibility to PPR outbreak and needs an implementation of control measures to reduce economic losses. Vaccination will increase the proportion of animals with a protective antibody level, however more investigation needs to be done to determine why almost one-quarter of animals failed to seroconvert to vaccination. Further detailed study is needed to find out the risk factors responsible for low prevalence of antibody against PPRV in the immunized flock.

Hemato-biochemical profiles have been used widely to identify the health problems associated with productive and reproductive disorders. The objective of this study was to set up a baseline hematological and serum biochemical values. The study was carried out in 50 lactating cross bred Jersey cattle of Kaski district ranging in age from 3-7 years. Non-pregnant, lactating, apparently healthy and stall-fed cattle were selected for sampling and these animals were regularly dewormed and vaccinated against common diseases. All the hematological parameters were determined on the same day of collection using auto analyzer. The samples were also tested for blood protozoans (Anaplasma, Babesia, Theleria and Trypanosoma), using thin and thick smears. The serum samples were collected in a sterile vial for serum biochemical analysis and preserved at -200C until used for the assays. All the hematological parameters were within the normal range. However, 2% of the total animals tested appeared Theleria positive. Eosinophil and basophils were within the normal range suggesting that the deworming was effective and there was no allergic reaction. Mineral profile particularly glucose (11.75±0.87) was found significantly (P

Nepal is a rabies endemic country where stray and community dogs are the main reservoir of this life threatening diseases. The orchidectomy is performed to control the male dog population, which is supposed to be very painful and invasive thereby not rational in context of animal welfare. Therefore present study was undertaken to study the efficacy of single intratesticular injection of calcium chloride for neutering of the male dog. Twelve apparently healthy male dogs were randomly allocated into 3 groups (n=4). Group-I received single bilateral intratesticular injection of 20% calcium chloride together with 1% lignocaine-HCl at dose determined accordingly with testicular width. Similarly, Group-II received a single bilateral intratesticular injection of sterile normal saline containing 1% lignocaine-HCl. However, the orchidectomy was performed following the standard surgical protocol in the dogs of Group-III. Histopathologically, the calcium chloride injected testicular section demonstrated dissolution of the germ cell association, atrophied seminiferous tubules and washing out of the germ cells from the tubules. In some area, there was coagulative necrosis of the seminiferous epithelium and interstitial spaces as well as degenerated and coagulated germ cells in combination with fibrous tissue. Intertubular edema, fibrosis, hemorrhage were also evident. Some necrotic cells showed desquamation or even calcification. Intertubular vessels were severely congested. There was complete loss of tubular architecture without any distinct boundary between the tubular and extra tubular compartment in some region of testis. The intratesticular injection of 20% calcium chloride did not show any apparent pain, stress, metabolic toxicity and untoward side effect. Histomorphological findings revealed the uneven distribution of damage and inconsistent affect on seminiferous tubules. Therefore, intratesticular injection of calcium chloride could be useful alternative for neutering the male dog.Int. J. Appl. Sci. Biotechnol. Vol 6(2): 158-163