Assessing the extent and magnitude of wildlife impact on forest regeneration (e.g., % browsed seedlings or reduction in regeneration density) remains a central challenge. This study explores the potential of unmanned aircraft systems (UAS) to quantify wildlife impact through the integration of drone-based thermal surveys and vegetation assessments. Specifically, it evaluates whether UAS-derived wildlife density estimates can be linked to browsing intensity and regeneration structure, thereby enabling an indirect assessment of silviculturally relevant forest dynamics. By combining remotely sensed wildlife data with field-based vegetation inventories, the study aims to identify measurable relationships between structural forest characteristics and browsing effects. This approach contributes to the development of spatially efficient, objective, and reproducible monitoring methods at the forest–wildlife interface. Ultimately, the study provides a novel framework for integrating modern remote sensing technologies into wildlife–ecological monitoring and for improving adaptive, evidence-based management in forest ecosystems increasingly affected by high ungulate densities and climate-related stressors. Two silviculturally contrasting study areas were selected: a broadleaf-dominated mixed forest in Hesse, where high ungulate densities were expected, and a pine-dominated site in Brandenburg, anticipated to experience lower browsing pressure. Thermal surveys were conducted using a DJI Matrice 30T drone equipped with a high-resolution infrared camera to detect and geolocate wildlife. In parallel, browsing impact was assessed using a modified circular transect method (“Neuzeller method”). Regeneration was recorded by tree species, height class, and browsing intensity. Statistical analyses and GIS-based spatial visualizations were used to examine the relationship between estimated ungulate densities and browsing levels. Results revealed clear differences in wildlife abundance and browsing intensity between the two sites. In the Heppenheim forest, roe deer densities exceeded 40 individuals per 100 ha, correlating with high browsing pressure—particularly on ecologically and silviculturally valuable species such as sycamore maple and sessile oak. In contrast, the Rochauer Heide exhibited lower densities and a comparatively moderate browsing impact, although certain tree species still showed signs of selective pressure. This study demonstrates that drone-based wildlife monitoring offers an innovative, non-invasive means to indirectly evaluate forest structural conditions in regeneration layers. The findings highlight the relevance of UAV-supported methods for evidence-based wildlife management and the adaptive planning of silvicultural measures. The method enhances transparency and spatial resolution in forest–wildlife management and supports evidence-based decision-making in times of ecological and climatic change.

Parasitoids are key natural antagonists of forest insect pests and are gaining importance in integrated forest protection under increasing climate-related disturbances. This study aimed to quantify the influence of vegetation diversity and canopy structure on the abundance and diversity of the overall insect community responses to vegetation structure and to provide an ecological context. Second, detailed analyses focused on three focal parasitoid families (Braconidae, Ichneumonidae, Tachinidae), which are of particular relevance for integrated forest protection due to their central role in integrated forest protection and in pesticide-free regulation approaches for risk mitigation in forest ecosystems. Malaise traps were deployed at eight randomly selected broadleaf and coniferous sites, and insect samples from six sampling dates in summer 2024 were analyzed. The sampling period coincided with the full development of woody and vascular plants, representing the phase of highest expected activity of phytophagous insects and associated parasitoids. Vegetation surveys (Braun–Blanquet), canopy closure, and canopy cover were recorded for each site. Across all samples, five arthropod classes, 13 insect orders, and 31 hymenopteran families were identified, with pronounced site-specific differences in community composition and abundance. Our results suggest that broadleaf-dominated sites, characterized by higher plant species richness and greater structural heterogeneity, support a more diverse assemblage of phytophagous insects, thereby increasing host availability and niche diversity for parasitoids. Parasitoid communities generally showed higher diversity at broadleaf sites. Spearman correlations and multiple linear regressions revealed a strong negative relationship between canopy cover and total insect abundance ρ (Spearman’s rank correlation coefficient (Spearman ρ = −0.72, p = 0.042; p = 0.012, R² = 0.70), R² (coefficient of determination), whereas parasitoid diversity (Shannon index) and the relative proportion of Ichneumonidae were positively associated with canopy cover (ρ = 0.85, p = 0.008). In addition, canopy cover had a significant positive effect on overall insect diversity (Shannon index; p = 0.015, R² = 0.63). Time-series analyses revealed a significant seasonal decline in parasitoid abundance (p < 0.001) and parasitoid diversity (p = 0.018). Time-series analyses revealed seasonal dynamics characterized by fluctuations in parasitoid abundance and diversity and a general decrease over the course of the sampling period. The findings demonstrate that structurally diverse mixed forests, particularly those with a high proportion of broadleaf trees mixed forests with heterogeneous canopy layers can enhance the diversity of specialized natural enemies, while dense canopy cover reduces overall insect abundance. These insights provide an ecological basis for silvicultural strategies that strengthen natural regulation processes within integrated forest protection.

Ungulate browsing is a major driver of forest regeneration dynamics and habitat structure in managed temperate forests, influencing species composition, regeneration success, and long-term stand development. Traditional assessments of browsing impacts often rely on field-based indicators such as regeneration density or visual cover, but these metrics provide limited insight into three-dimensional habitat structure. Mobile handheld LiDAR offers highly detailed measurements of forest structure, enabling objective and reproducible quantification of structural complexity that complements and extends conventional field-based methods. In this study, we applied handheld LiDAR as an innovative indicator for habitat structure within the ungulate browsing zone (<2 m height) to evaluate structural development across sites differing in management context. Paired fenced and unfenced plots (12 × 12 m) were surveyed within the WiWaldI project framework in 2019 and 2023 and compared across three hunting regimes representing different degrees of ungulate population management. Structural complexity was quantified by deriving box-counting dimensions from LiDAR point clouds, providing a measure of spatial arrangement and density relevant to ungulate–vegetation interactions. To support interpretation and ecological context, we complemented LiDAR indicators with streamlined field assessments. Based on this framework, we assessed whether forest structural complexity and visual cover differ among regions and over time, and whether ungulate browsing induces detectable structural differences between fenced whether structural differences between fenced and unfenced plots are detectable. We further examined the relative importance of tree species composition, plant architecture, and hunting regime as drivers of three-dimensional habitat structure. A simplified octant method characterized the spatial distribution of woody regeneration, while a silhouette-based approach quantified visual cover from the perspective of a standard ungulate profile. These auxiliary measures contextualize visual and spatial aspects of structure that LiDAR metrics capture with minimal observer bias. LiDAR studies have previously demonstrated potential for linking high-resolution structural data to ungulate habitat use, and our approach extends this by focusing on structural complexity as a habitat indicator. Results show a consistent increase in LiDAR-derived structural complexity between 2019 and 2023 across all regions. This increase occurred across management contexts and was not consistently explained by fencing or hunting regime effects, suggesting that site conditions, forest composition, and successional processes were dominant drivers during the observation period. Hunting regime showed no statistically significant and no consistent effect on structural complexity across regions or years. Visual cover metrics varied strongly among regions and species and declined over time. These findings suggest that three-dimensional habitat structure information has the potential to enhance the evaluation of ungulate impacts and may support evidence-based forest and wildlife management, particularly when interpreted in the context of site conditions and successional dynamics. Beyond ungulate impact assessment, the presented handheld LiDAR approach provides a scalable remote sensing framework for precision forestry by capturing three-dimensional structural attributes that are directly linked to forest stability, resilience, growth dynamics, and stand-level species mixing, thereby supporting evidence-based forest management recommendations.

Wildlife carcasses serve as biodiversity hotspots for soil bacteria and fungi, as well as for bacteria and fungi that inhabit or grow on the carcass itself (the necrobiome). They also play a vital role in supporting scavenging wildlife, particularly vulture species, which rely on the availability of carrion. Due to aesthetic and veterinary regulations, however, we rarely or never encounter carcasses in the wild. The rapid removal of carcasses naturally impacts biodiversity by disrupting food chains and reducing habitat complexity. Examples from a vulture project in Namibia, as well as carcass research in Germany using exposed large vertebrate carcasses, provide insights into the significance of carcasses for scavenging wildlife, habitat parameters in the immediate vicinity of carcasses, and the effects on bird of prey populations, such as vultures. These studies highlight the essential role carcasses play not only in sustaining scavenger populations but also in shaping local biodiversity and ecological balance. Thus, rapid carcass removal can have significant ecological consequences. Future research and management should take into account the crucial role of carcasses in ecosystems to preserve biodiversity and support the health of scavenger species and their habitats.