Reducing environmental pollution is a critical goal in global environmental economics and economic development. The European Union (EU) faces environmental challenges due to its development activities. Here we present a comprehensive approach to assess the impact of carbon dioxide (CO₂) emissions, energy consumption (EC), population structure (POP), economy (GDP), and policies on the environment within the EU using the environmental Kuznets curve (EKC). Our research reveals that between 1990 and 2019, the EU-27 experienced an increase of +1.18 million tonnes of oil equivalent (Mtoe) per year in energy consumption (p < 0.05), while CO₂ emissions decreased by 24.25 million tonnes (Mt) per year (p < 0.05). The highest reduction in CO₂ emissions occurred in Germany (−7.52 Mt CO₂ annually), and the lowest in Latvia (−0.087 Mt CO₂ annually). The empirical EKC analysis shows an inverted-U shaped relationship between GDP and CO₂ emissions in the EU-27. Specifically, a 1% increase in GDP results in a 0.705% increase in carbon emission, while a 1% increase in GDP² leads to a 0.062% reduction in environmental pollution in the long run (p < 0.01). These findings indicate that economic development within the EU has reached a stage where economic growth positively impacts the environment. Overall, this study provides insights into the effectiveness of environmental policies in mitigating degradation and promoting green growth in the EU 27 countries.

Water erosion is a major threat to biodiversity, according to the European Commission’s Soil Thematic Strategy, as it negatively affects soil structure, soil fertility and water availability for plants. The island of Crete (Southern Greece) has been characterized as a biodiversity hotspot including several Natura 2000 (N2K)-protected areas. The aim of this study was to model the soil loss rate in Crete regarding species richness, habitat types and their conservation status, as well as the MAES (Mapping and Assessment of Ecosystem and their Services) ecosystem types. To this end, the RUSLE soil erosion prediction model was implemented, using freely available geospatial data and cloud-computing processes. The estimated average soil loss in the study area was 6.15 t ha⁻¹ y⁻¹, while there was no significant difference between the terrestrial N2K (6.06 t ha⁻¹ y⁻¹) and non-N2K (6.19 t ha⁻¹ y⁻¹) areas. Notably, the natural habitats of principal importance for the conservation of biodiversity (referred to as “priority” areas), according to Annex I to Directive 92/43/EEC, are threatened by soil erosion with an estimated mean annual soil loss equal to 8.58 t ha⁻¹ y⁻¹. It is also notable that grasslands, heathland and shrubs and sparsely vegetated areas experienced the highest erosion rates among the identified MAES ecosystem types. The results showed that soil erosion is a serious threat to biodiversity in N2K-protected areas. Therefore, there is a need for systematic spatiotemporal monitoring and the implementation of erosion mitigation measures.