The field of plant sphingolipid biology has evolved in recent years. Sphingolipids are abundant in cell membranes, and genetic analyses revealed essential roles for these lipids in plant growth, development, and responses to abiotic and biotic stress. Salicylic acid is a key signaling molecule that is required for induction of defense-related genes and rapid and localized cell death at the site of pathogen infection (hypersensitive response) during incompatible host-pathogen interactions. Conceivably, while levels of salicylic acid rapidly increase upon pathogen infection for defense activation, they must be tightly regulated during plant growth and development in the absence of pathogens. Genetic and biochemical evidence suggest that the sphingolipid intermediates, long-chain sphingoid bases and ceramides, play a role in regulating salicylic acid accumulation in plant cells. However, how signals generated from the perturbation of these key sphingolipid intermediates are transduced into the activation of the salicylic acid pathway has long remained to be an interesting open question. At least four types of molecules –MAP kinase 6, reactive oxygen species, free calcium, and nitric oxide– could constitute a mechanistic link between sphingolipid metabolism and salicylic acid accumulation and signaling.

Fusarium verticillioides is a fungal pathogen of maize that causes seedling blight, stem rot, and Fusarium ear rot. Fungal infestation of maize kernels and ears affects grain quality from the ensuing mycotoxin buildup. Among the mycotoxins produced by F. verticillioides, fumonisins accumulate to high levels in Fusarium-infected maize kernels, fumonisin B1 (FB1) being the most abundant in naturally infected maize. Achieving resistance to Fusarium ear rot has been challenging, as various environmental factors facilitate fungal infection. Among the maize grain components that contribute to resistance to F. verticillioides infection, the pericarp is the first barrier faced by the fungus and thus plays a key role. Phenolic acids are major constituents of maize pericarp, of which ferulic acid (FA) is the predominant molecular species. In this work, we explored the relationship between FA levels, fungal infection, and FB1 production in 51 maize genotypes and whether the antioxidant activity of FA might play a role. We confirmed that FA is a major component of the seed pericarp, whose levels as bound FA varied between 4.5 and 26.3 mg/g across maize genotypes. We selected two pools of five maize varieties, with contrasting FA contents: low FA (LFA; 6.14 ± 0.40 mg/g) and high FA (HFA; 15.49 ± 1.31 mg/g). In vitro, HFA extracts inhibited fungal growth with effects comparable to FA concentrations in the 0.25–0.50 mM range. We also established a kernel assay to study F. verticillioides colonization and FB1 production in the LFA and HFA genotypes. Fungal colonization was significantly lower in HFA genotypes relative to LFA genotypes, based on ergosterol levels. Moreover, FB1 production was also inhibited in the HFA genotypes. Importantly, the antioxidant activity of maize pericarp extracts was associated with FA contents, with HFA extracts exhibiting a greater antioxidant activity than LFA extracts. Overall, our results highlight the role of FA and its antioxidant activity on resistance to Fusarium ear rot and provide the basis of a phenotypic trait that can be deployed for breeding selection.

This study used a meta-analytic approach to evaluate the effects of dietary supplementation with seaweed on milk yield, milk composition, nutrient digestibility, ruminal fermentation, and enteric methane (CH₄) emissions of dairy cows. Data used in statistical analyses were obtained from 23 peer-reviewed scientific articles. Effect size was assessed using weighted mean differences (WMD) between seaweed-supplemented and control treatments. Dietary supplementation with seaweed decreased (p < 0.05) dry matter intake, milk protein content, milk urea nitrogen, and somatic cell count. In contrast, milk fat content, milk lactose content, and milk iodine increased (p < 0.05) in response to dietary supplementation with seaweed. Dietary supplementation with seaweed did not affect (p > 0.05) nutrient digestibility, total volatile fatty acids, acetate, and propionate. Dietary supplementation with seaweeds increased (p < 0.05) ruminal pH and ruminal concentration of butyrate and valerate. In contrast, lower (p < 0.05) ruminal ammonia nitrogen concentration, acetate/propionate ratio, daily CH₄ emission, CH₄ yield, and CH₄ intensity were observed in response to dietary supplementation with seaweeds. In conclusion, dietary supplementation with seaweed modifies milk composition, improves ruminal fermentation, and decreases enteric methane emissions without negatively affecting milk yield or feed efficiency.

ResumenFusarium verticillioides es el principal hongo patógeno que afecta la productividad del maíz en el mundo. Este hongo penetra a la planta por distintas rutas e infecta raíces, tallo y mazorca. El patógeno produce varias toxinas en el tejido y en los granos del maíz, lo que disminuye su calidad. Las fumonisinas son las toxinas mayoritarias excretadas por el hongo. Un grupo de genes forma el locus FUM en el cromosoma 1 de F. verticillioides y codifica las enzimas responsables de la síntesis de las fumonisinas. Sin embargo, la cantidad de fumonisina producida es altamente variable entre cepas del hongo. La regulación de la síntesis es muy compleja y depende de factores ambientales y nutricionales, así como de múltiples vías de señalización que ejercen tanto regulación positiva como negativa. Las fumonisinas son consideradas factores de virulencia, ya que su producción se asocia con una mayor capacidad de infección de F. verticillioides en plántulas de maíz. Sin embargo, este papel no es claro en la infección y pudrición de la mazorca. En maíz, las fumonisinas tienen tres blancos moleculares que son la esfinganina N-acil transferasa, la ATPasa de protones de membrana plasmática y las β-1,3-glucanasas básicas. Las tres enzimas tienen funciones fisiológicas relevantes y participan en la respuesta de defensa de la planta.AbstractFusarium verticillioides is the main fungal pathogen that affects the productivity of maize worldwide. The fungus penetrates the plant by different routes and infects roots, stem and cob. The pathogen produces several toxins in tissue and corn kernels, which affect their quality. Fumonisins are the major toxins produced by this fungus. The ability to produce them depends on the presence of several genes encoding the enzymes responsible for biosynthesis. The regulation of the synthesis is very complex and depends on environmental and nutritional factors, as well as multiple signaling pathways. This is reflected by the high variability in fumonisin production among F. verticillioides strains. Fumonisins are virulence factors because their production is associated with a greater capacity to infect maize seedlings. However, this role is not clear for ear infection and rotting. In maize, fumonisins have three molecular targets: sphinganine N-acyl-transferase, plasma membrane proton ATPase and the basic β-1,3-glucanases. These three enzymes have important physiological functions and also participate in the plant defense response against fungal pathogens