Soil fertility decline is a critical barrier to sustainable agriculture in arid and semi-arid regions. This study evaluated the influence of four native leguminous tree species; Albizia lebbeck, Dalbergia sissoo, Prosopis cineraria and Vachellia nilotica on soil physicochemical properties at four depths (0–15 cm, 15–30 cm, 30–45 cm and 45–60 cm) in Bahawalpur District, Pakistan. A three-year field experiment, using a randomized complete block design, assessed soil pH, bulk density, organic matter, organic carbon, moisture, saturation, electrical conductivity and available N, P and K. Results revealed significant differences (p < 0.05) among tree species and across soil depths. D. sissoo had the highest soil pH (8.26), moisture (19.72%), and saturation (36.77%) at 0–30 cm. V. nilotica showed consistent organic matter and had the highest nitrogen content (11.1 mg/kg), while A. lebbeck contributed the most potassium (109 mg/kg), and D. sissoo led in phosphorus (9.1 mg/kg). P. cineraria and A. lebbeck significantly reduced soil electrical conductivity. Among all species, V. nilotica emerged as the most effective for enhancing soil fertility due to its balanced contributions to nitrogen and organic matter. The findings emphasize the critical role of species selection and depth-specific assessments in designing agroforestry systems aimed at improving soil health and boosting productivity. These findings also provide a robust, evidence-based guide for selecting tree species to integrate into agroforestry systems, offering practical strategies for improving agricultural resilience and smallholder livelihoods in water-scarce environments.

Non-Governmental Organizations (NGOs) are widely recognized for their support of biodiversity conservation and forest restoration in tropical developing countries. In the Chittagong Hill Tracts (CHTs) of Bangladesh, ethnic forest-dependent communities have long maintained the Village Common Forest (VCF), an ancestral forest managed for community well-being. In recent years, some VCFs in the CHT have received support from local and international NGOs due to their perceived role in supporting biodiversity, ecosystem services, and improving local livelihoods. Although such support remains limited, its impacts on forest restoration and vegetation are not yet fully investigated. In the present study, we used remote sensing techniques and field surveys to measure vegetation cover changes and tree diversity in selected VCFs in the area. Our findings indicate that vegetation condition and tree diversity were better in NGO-supported VCFs compared with those without NGO intervention. Based on our study, we recommend increasing NGO involvement in VCF management with a more holistic and ecosystem-based approach, fostering institutional cooperation addressing land ownership issues, developing a market for forest ecosystem services, and improving local capacity for science-based forest management and ecosystem restoration in the CHT.